Higher genetic variance of prey defense promotes fluctuation-dependent species coexistence
Data files
Feb 09, 2026 version files 7.72 MB
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README.md
3.31 KB
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SupplementaryMaterial.nb
5.57 MB
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SupplementaryMaterial.pdf
2.15 MB
Abstract
Understanding the stable coexistence of competing species despite the competitive exclusion principle has been a central topic in ecology. Previous studies revealed that rapid contemporary evolution can promote species coexistence, but the mechanisms behind coexistence are not fully understood. A recent study showed that predator evolution can promote fluctuation-dependent species coexistence. Here, I propose a new mechanism where prey rapid evolution due to high genetic variance can also promote fluctuation-dependent coexistence of competing predator species. Previous experimental and theoretical studies demonstrated that the rapid evolution of a prey defense trait can cause predator-prey population cycles. Although those studies focused on a system with a single predator species, I show that the population fluctuations driven by prey rapid evolution can promote the coexistence of two competing predator species via a gleaner-opportunist trade-off. By expanding the framework of modern coexistence theory, I further show how prey rapid evolution can increase the niche difference of competing predators and simultaneously affect the competitive ability difference via population cycles. Given the propensity for oscillatory dynamics and prey rapid evolution (due to large population sizes and genetic variance) in nature, I argue that this expansion of coexistence theory provides an important solution to the coexistence paradox.
Dataset DOI: 10.5061/dryad.0000000g8
Description of the data and file structure
A Mathematica notebook (.nb and .pdf) to analyze ordinary differential equations for understanding how higher genetic variance of prey defense promotes fluctuation-dependent species coexistence.
Files and variables
- SupplementaryMaterial.nb
This file can be opened by Wolfram Mathematica.
- SupplementaryMaterial.pdf
A PDF version of "SupplementaryMaterial.nb".
Contents
- Quantitative trait model (Figs. 1, S1-S3, Appendices S1-S2)
- Appendix S1: General analyses of the quantitative trait model
- Appendix S2: Detailed analyses of a model based on Abrams & Matsuda (1997) Evolution
- Fig. 1a: Competitive exclusion when the prey genetic variance is low
- Fig. S1a: The gleaner-opportunist trade-off
- Fig. S1b: The growth-defense trade-off for disruptive selection
- Fig. 1c: A bifurcation plot along the prey genetic variance without an opportunist
- Fig. S2c: A bifurcation plot along the density-dependent parameter without an opportunist
- Fig. 1d: A bifurcation plot along the prey genetic variance with an opportunist
- Fig. S2a-b: Competitive exclusion or coexistence depending on the density-dependent parameter
- Fig. S2d: A bifurcation plot along the density-dependent parameter with an opportunist
- Fig. 1b: Coexistence when the prey genetic variance is high
- Fig. 1f: The niche and competitive ability differences with fluctuations
- Fig. 1e: A phase diagram of coexistence along the prey genetic variance and handling time
- Fig. S3: Coexistence of three predator species
- Coevolution model (Figs. 2, S4-S5, Appendix S3)
- Fig. S4a: The foraging-mortality trade-off for stabilizing selection
- Fig. S4b: A phase diagram of cycles without a gleaner along the prey and predator genetic variance (V1 and V2)
- Fig. 2a: A phase diagram of coexistence along the prey and predator genetic variance
- Fig. S4c-d: Dynamics when (V1, V2) = (0.02, 0.1)
- Fig. 2b-d: Dynamics when (V1, V2) = (0.05, 0.1), (0.1, 0.1), and (0.05, 0.6)
- Fig. 2e: A bifurcation plot along the prey genetic variance when V2 = 0.1
- Fig. 2f: A bifurcation plot along the predator genetic variance when V1 = 0.05
- Fig. S5a: A phase diagram of coexistence along the prey and predator genetic variance
- Fig. S5b: A bifurcation plot along the predator genetic variance when V1 = 0.27
- Fig. S5c-d: Dynamics when (V1, V2) = (0.27, 0.1) and (0.27, 0.6)
- Clonal model (Figs. 3, S6)
- Fig. 3a: A bifurcation plot along the defended clone's trait without an opportunist
- Fig. 3c: Coexistence when prey trait variation is high
- Fig. S6: The gleaner-opportunist trade-off
- Fig. 3d: The niche and competitive ability differences with fluctuations
- Fig. 3b: A bifurcation plot along the defended clone's trait with an opportunist
- van Velzen (2020)'s quantitative trait model (Appendix S4, Fig. S7)
- Fig. S7: The niche and competitive ability differences in van Velzen (2020) Ecology
Code/software
Wolfram Mathematica 14.3.0.0