Data from: Diet and chemical defenses of the Sonoran Desert toads
Data files
Aug 18, 2025 version files 541.87 MB
Abstract
The Sonoran Desert Toad (Incilius alvarius) is the only animal known to secrete the psychedelic compound 5-MeO-DMT as a chemical defense, but the source of 5-MeO-DMT in I. alvarius remains unknown. Some amphibians produce chemical defenses endogenously or through symbiotic interactions, while others acquire them from specialized diets. In this study, we analyzed toxin gland secretions and diet profiles from wild I. alvarius and sympatric anurans from native and urban habitats around Tucson, Arizona, to explore possible links between diet and 5-MeO-DMT production. All I. alvarius secreted high concentrations of 5-MeO-DMT, whereas other sympatric toads did not. The diet of I. alvarius was similar to that of sympatric anurans, indicating that I. alvarius does not exhibit relative dietary specialization. Slight dietary differences between I. alvarius in native and urbanized habitats were observed. Taken together, these lines of evidence suggest that diet is not directly linked to 5-MeO-DMT production, and support the alternative hypotheses that I. alvarius Sonoran Desert toads synthesizes 5-MeO-DMT endogenously, or via a microbial symbiont.
Dataset DOI: 10.5061/dryad.76hdr7t71
Description of the data and file structure
This dataset contains the raw anuran diet data and corresponding code for analyses associated with the PLOS One article by Luccioni et al. 2025, "Diet and chemical defenses of the Sonoran Desert toads." Processed diet data and raw and processed Direct Analysis in Real Time Time-of-flight Mass Spectrometry (DART-TOF-MS) data are presented within the manuscript or included as supplemental material.
Files and variables
File: Luccioni_et_al._2025_Anuran_Stomach_Content_Photos.zip
Description: All anuran stomach content photos. Names are in the format "number_letter_number," in which the first number corresponds to the unique identifier for the anuran from which contents were sampled ("ID" in the associated CSV), the letter combined with the first number is a unique identifier for each individual prey item, and the second number identifies different photo of the same prey item. Some prey items also have the designation "FE" and/or "mix"; the former represents fecal samples and the latter represents a sample of mixed prey items, as opposed to individual items collected separately during sampling and subsequently stored separately. In the few cases where there is more than one letter in the sample name, letter order designates individual prey items from left to right, top to bottom, or clockwise from top left. Finally, some fecal samples for toads 40-45 were mixed, and these are designated as "40-45_..."
For example, "50_ab_FE_mix_2" would represent the second photo of two diet items from a mixed fecal sample collected from toad number 50, with a representing the left item and b representing the right (or top and bottom, if the photo is oriented correspondingly).
File: Luccioni_et_al._2025_Toad_Diet_Data_Grouped_Final.csv
Description: A CSV containing all anuran diet data, mostly grouped by order (see below for details).
Variables
- ID: A unique identifier for each anuran. Also corresponds to the first number in the unique identifier for each prey item, e.g. "1_a"
- Date: Collection date
- Species: AC = Anaxyrus cognatus, AP = Anaxyrus punctatus, IA = Incilius alvarius, SC = Scaphiopus couchii
- Category: Identifies each anuran as I. alvarius ("IA") or not ("Other") for subseqent analyses
- Length.cm: Length in centimeters. Empty cells represent instances in which we were unable to measure the individual (see manuscript)
- Weight.g: Weight in grams. Empty cells represent instances in which we were unable to weigh the individual (see manuscript)
- Sex: Sex, where possible to assign visually. Empty cells represent individuals of unknown sex (see manuscript)
- Age: Age class. Juvenile = metamorph/first year, Subadult = post-juvenile, pre-reproductive maturity, Adult = reproductive maturity
- Site: Unique site identifier, which corresponds to descriptions and maps in the manuscript
- Habitat: Urban or native habitat
- Num.Beetles: Number of beetles (Coleoptera)
- Num.Odonata: Number of dragonflies and damselflies (Odonata)
- Num.Orthopterans: Number of grasshoppers and crickets (Orthoptera)
- Num.Webspinners: Number of webspinners (Embioptera)
- Num.Hym: Number of ants, wasps, and bees (Hymenoptera)
- Num.Scorpions: Number of scorpions (Scorpiones)
- Num.Spiders: Number of spiders (Araneae)
- Num.Blatt: Number of cockroaches and termites (Blattodea)
- Num.Hemiptera: Number of true bugs (Hemiptera)
- Num.Ants: Number of ants, subset of number of Hymenoptera
- Num.Other: Number of non-Hymenoptera and non-Coleoptera
- Num.Rocks: Number of rocks
- Num.Plants: Number of plants
- Num.Native: Number of arthropods that are native species
- Num.Introduced: Number of arthropods that are introduced species
- Tot: Total number of arthropods
File: Luccioni_et_al._2025_Analyses_Final.R
Description: R code necessary to recreate all results in Luccioni et al. 2025. Comments in code document provide relevant information.
Code/software
Our code was prepared using R version 4.4.1 (2024-06-14) and RStudio version 2024.04.2+764 (2024.04.2+764).