Brief personalised rhythmic auditory stimulation facilitates cognitive and neural processing in ageing

Gómez-Lombardi, Andre 1 ; Góngora-Costa, Begoña1 ; Prado, Pavel2 ; Muñoz, Pablo1 ; El-Deredy, Wael1

Published Oct 29, 2025; Updated Nov 07, 2025 on Dryad. https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.t76hdr8dm

Data files

Oct 29, 2025 version files 25.65 GB

Baseline_scripts.zip

9.46 KB
Cxy_Plv_Entrainment_scripts.zip

34.87 KB
Dataset.xlsx

52.71 KB
ERP_scripts.zip

30.52 KB
Induced_power_scripts.zip

11.17 KB
Power_Entrainment_script.zip

16.20 KB
Raw_data_base.zip

5.70 GB
Raw_data_stim.zip

19.95 GB
README.md

3.05 KB
Stimulation_scripts.zip

19.02 KB

Nov 07, 2025 version files 25.65 GB

Baseline_scripts.zip

9.46 KB
Cxy_Plv_Entrainment_scripts.zip

34.87 KB
Dataset.xlsx

52.88 KB
ERP_scripts.zip

30.52 KB
Induced_power_scripts.zip

11.17 KB
Power_Entrainment_script.zip

16.20 KB
Raw_data_base.zip

5.70 GB
Raw_data_stim.zip

19.95 GB
README.md

3.53 KB
Stimulation_scripts.zip

19.02 KB

Abstract

There is growing interest in non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) as a safe and practical method to support cognitive function during ageing. NIBS using rhythmic sensory stimuli entrains brain oscillations and synchronises functional networks, but the choice of NIBS frequency to enhance performance in cognitive tasks remains unclear. We adopt a network neuroscience approach to NIBS, linking network connectivity, EEG oscillatory frequencies, and behavioural performance, to test the effects of personalised rhythmic auditory stimulation (RAS) on an inhibitory control task (Simon task) in older adults aged 60–75 years. Simon task trials were preceded by ≈1.7–3.2 s of personalised RAS (clicks) at each individual’s theta oscillation frequency (f_θ), a slightly faster variant (f_θ+), a fixed low-frequency control at 2 Hz (f_2Hz), or a non-rhythmic control (NR). Reaction times (RTs) after personalised stimulation were faster than f_2Hz and NR, with stronger brain entrainment to rhythmic stimulation linked to faster RTs. Task-related EEG signals showed enhanced attentional processes and more efficient cortical responses following the personalised stimulation. Individuals with lower baseline performance had the greatest benefits. The findings suggest personalised RAS enhances cognitive performance in ageing and provides a cost-effective neurorehabilitation approach to mitigate age-related cognitive decline.

Dataset DOI: 10.5061/dryad.t76hdr8dm

Description of the data and file structure

The data were collected as part of a study investigating the effects of personalised non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) using rhythmic auditory stimulation (RAS) on cognitive performance in ageing. Forty-four participants aged 60–75 completed an inhibitory control task (Simon task) while EEG activity was recorded. Each participant was exposed to rhythmic auditory stimulation at individualized theta frequencies and control conditions.

Behavioural measures, including reaction time and accuracy, were derived from the Simon task. EEG data were analysed to obtain the amplitude of the N2 component, entrainment, and induced theta power. All measures were computed across the different conditions of rhythmic auditory stimulation, which are abbreviated in the accompanying database file as follows:

doshz: 2 Hz stimulation, fθ: individual theta stimulation, fθ+: fθ∗1.33, and nr: non-rhythmic stimulation.

Files and variables

File: Raw_data_base.zip

Description: Raw EEG recordings collected during the baseline condition, in which no auditory stimulation was presented (.bdf format)

File: Raw_data_stim.zip

Description: Raw EEG recordings from the stimulation conditions, where participants were exposed to rhythmic auditory stimulation at 2 Hz, f_θ, and f_θ⁺ frequencies, along with a non-rhythmic control condition (.bdf format).

File: Baseline_scripts.zip

Description: MATLAB scripts associated with the baseline condition, covering preprocessing, epoching, and wavelet-based analyses.

File: Stimulation_scripts.zip

Description: MATLAB scripts associated with the rhythmic stimulation conditions, covering preprocessing, epoching, and wavelet-based analyses.

File: Induced_power_scripts.zip

Description: MATLAB scripts provided to compute induced power for EEG data recorded during the Simon task.

File: ERP_scripts.zip

Description: MATLAB scripts for computing event-related potentials (ERPs), specifically targeting analysis of the N2 component.

File: Power_Entrainment_script.zip

Description: MATLAB scripts to compute power entrainment

File: Cxy_Plv_Entrainment_scripts.zip

Description: MATLAB scripts to compute spectral coherence (Cxy) and phase-locking value (PLV) as measures of neural entrainment.

File: Dataset.xlsx

Description: All data collected for the study, with variable names and descriptions provided in the file.

Code/software

The data can be viewed and processed using MATLAB and the open-source EEGLAB toolbox. EEGLAB provides graphical and scripting interfaces for importing, visualizing, and analyzing EEG data in .bdf format.

The files contain MATLAB scripts used for the study’s main analyses, including induced power, event-related potentials (ERPs), and neural entrainment. Dedicated scripts for data preprocessing are also provided to ensure full reproducibility of the analysis pipeline. Each script is thoroughly commented to enhance understanding.

Human subjects data

All participants provided informed consent for the publication of de-identified data. To ensure anonymity, we removed all direct and indirect identifiers, such as names, contact information, and any details that could lead to re-identification.