This dataset was collected from first-generation immigrants between 2022 and 2023. Over a 28-day period, 39 participants aged 18 to 65, fluent in English and experiencing loneliness (UCLA Loneliness Scale score ≥ 28) contributed to the study. Data collection utilized Samsung Watch Active 2, Oura Ring, AWARE, and Centralive smartphone application. This dataset contains raw data from photoplethysmogram (PPG), inertial measurement unit (IMU) readings, air pressure, and processed data on heart rate, heart rate variability, sleep metrics (bedtime, stages, quality), physical activity (steps, active calories, activity types), and smartphone usage patterns (screen time, notifications, call and message logs). Participants also completed ecological momentary assessments (EMA) and weekly surveys, including instruments like the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), Perceived Stress Scale, Sense of Coherence Scale, Social Connectedness Scale, Twente Engagement with E-Health Technologies questionnaire, and the UCLA Loneliness Scale. This dataset can be used to study the interplay between loneliness, mental well-being, and daily behaviors of immigrants in a real-world context.

Design and set up

This study was designed to create a longitudinal dataset capturing physiological, behavioral, and psychological data from first-generation immigrants living in Finland. The dataset aims to support research on the relationship between mental health and daily lifestyle factors, providing a foundation for further detection algorithm development.

To achieve this, the study collected multimodal data over a 28-day period from every participant. Objective data were gathered from wearable devices, which recorded sleep patterns, physical activity, and cardiovascular health metrics and raw PPG signals. Passive smartphone data, such as screen usage, notifications, calls, and messages, were also collected to capture digital behavior patterns.

Subjective data were collected through EMAs delivered via push notifications and weekly self-report surveys. These assessments measured daily emotional states—loneliness, stress, depression, and social connectedness. By integrating multiple data sources, this dataset allows researchers to explore the complex interactions between mental health and lifestyle behaviors under free-living conditions.

Data collection

To facilitate continuous data collection and remote monitoring, the Centralive was used. Centralive is a digital health platform designed for continuous data collection, data storage, real-time monitoring, and remote management of participant engagement throughout the study. Data was collected using different applications, and wearable devices all centralized to the Centralive system. Then the collected data was transferred and stored in the Centralive’s cloud server. The Centralive’s dashboard was used to monitor the collected data to monitor participant’s engagement during data collection.

To collect the subjective daily EMAs and weekly surveys, the Centralive prompted the daily EMAs at 8 a.m., 2 p.m., 5 p.m., 8 p.m., and 10 p.m. to every participant.  The daily EMA contains questions focusing on their current emotions including feelings of loneliness, social connectedness, and affect. The weekly EMA was open from 12 a.m. to 11:59 p.m. and prompted participants every Sunday.

Samsung watch active 2, equipped with Tizen open-source Operating  System (TizenOS) was used to collect objective physiological signals. The device recorded photoplethysmography (PPG), accelerometer, and gyroscope data at a sampling rate of 20 Hz, while air pressure measurements were captured at 10 Hz. Data collection was scheduled at two-hour intervals, with each recording session lasting 12 minutes.

The Oura Ring was used to track participants' sleep and activity patterns throughout the study. Data collected by the Oura Ring, including sleep, activity metrics, and cardiac metrics including heart rate and heart rate variability sensed during sleep. Centralive utilized Open Authentication to securely access and retrieve these data, making them available to researchers on a daily basis for further analysis.

The AWARE framework was used to collect passive phone activity data. The AWARE app ran in the background on participants’ smartphones, continuously logging data without requiring active user input. The collected data included battery usage patterns, recording charging events and power consumption to monitor device usage trends. Call logs were also recorded, tracking incoming and outgoing calls with metadata such as timestamps and call duration, but without capturing conversation content. Similarly, message logs documented sent and received text messages, preserving metadata while ensuring privacy. Notifications data provided insights into participants’ digital engagement by logging received notifications, including app source and timestamps. Screen usage patterns were also recorded, capturing screen-on and screen-off events to estimate interaction frequency and duration.

Recruitment and enrollment

Participants were recruited between 2022 and 2023 through purposive and snowball sampling methods. Recruitment was conducted at various sites across Finland. Eligible participants were encouraged to recommend other first-generation immigrants who met the study criteria, expanding the recruitment network.

To be eligible for the study, participants had to meet the following criteria: (1) be between 18 and 65 years old, (2) be fluent in English, (3) have resided in Finland for a relatively short time, and (4) experience loneliness, as indicated by a UCLA Loneliness Scale score of 28 or higher. A total of 42 participants initially enrolled, but three withdrew before completing the study. Therefore, data from the remaining 39 participants were included in the final dataset.

Upon expressing interest, potential participants were screened to confirm eligibility. Those who qualified were scheduled for an in-person enrollment session. During the session, participants were provided with detailed information about the study, and the research team reviewed the informed consent form before obtaining written consent. Participants then completed baseline psychological assessments, including surveys measuring loneliness, depression, stress, and social connectedness.

After enrollment, participants were guided through the study setup process. The research team assisted in configuring wearable devices, including the Samsung Watch Active 2 and the Oura Ring, and ensured that all necessary applications (AWARE, Oura, Galaxy Wearable) were installed on participants’ smartphones. Instructions were provided on how to use and maintain the devices throughout the study.

Participants were required to wear the devices daily and respond to EMAs and weekly surveys. The research team remotely monitored data collection through the Centralive platform to understand participant use and support and data integrity.

Exit

At the end of the 28-day study period, participants received a final set of surveys through Centralive. These surveys included the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), the Perceived Stress Scale, the Sense of Coherence Scale, the Social Connectedness Scale, the Twente Engagement with E-Health Technologies questionnaire, and the UCLA Loneliness Scale.

After completing these final assessments, participants were instructed to remove all study-related applications from their smartphones, including AWARE, Oura, and Galaxy Wearable. They were also required to reset the Samsung Watch Active 2 and Oura Ring before returning the devices.