The limits of convergence: the roles of phylogeny and dietary ecology in shaping non-avian amniote skulls
Data files
Aug 04, 2020 version files 698.07 MB
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Acinonyx_jubatus_(FMNH_34589)_lateral_M.JPG
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Acinonyx_jubatus_(FMNH_34589)_M.JPG
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Aepypymnus_rufescens_(FMNH_60876)_lateral__M.JPG
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Aepypymnus_rufescens_(FMNH_60876)_M.JPG
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Agama_agama_(FMNH_22190)_L.JPG
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Agama_agama_(FMNH_22190)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Ailuropoda_melanoleuca_(FMNH_36758)_lateral_M.JPG
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Ailuropoda_melanoleuca_(FMNH_36758)_M.JPG
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Ailurops_ursinus_(FMNH_31724)_lateral_M.JPG
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Ailurops_ursinus_(FMNH_31724)_M.JPG
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Ailurus_fulgens_(FMNH_36755)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Ailurus_fulgens_(FMNH_36755)_M.JPG
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Alligator_mississippiensis_(M-7388)_C.JPG
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Alligator_mississippiensis_(M-7388)_Lateral_C.JPG
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Alligator_sinensis_(FMNH_31303)_C.JPG
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Alligator_sinensis_(FMNH_31303)_Lateral_C.JPG
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Amblyrhnchus_cristatus_(MVZ_80076)_L.JPG
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Amblyrhnchus_cristatus_(MVZ_80076)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Anolis_carolinensis_(M-3251)_L.JPG
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Antechinus_flavipes_rubeculus_(FMNH_60957)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Antechinus_flavipes_rubeculus_(FMNH_60957)_M.JPG
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Arctocephalis_australis_(MVZ_139505)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Arctocephalis_australis_(MVZ_139505)_M.JPG
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Arctocephalis_townsendi_(MVZ_191003)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Arctocephalis_townsendi_(MVZ_191003)_M.JPG
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Bandicota_indica_(FMNH_104383)_M.JPG
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Bandictoa_indica_(FMNH_104383)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Basiliscus_basiliscus_(M-11909)_L.JPG
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Basiliscus_basiliscus_(M-11909)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Basiliscus_basiliscus_(MVZ_95989)_L.JPG
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Basiliscus_basiliscus_(MVZ_95989)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Basiliscus_vitatus_(M-2799)_L.JPG
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Basiliscus_vitatus_(M-2799)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Bettongia_penicillata_(FMNH_60794)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Bettongia_penicillata_(FMNH_60794)_M.JPG
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Caiman_crocodilus_(UF_80934)_C.JPG
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Caiman_crocodilus_(UF_80934)_Lateral_C.JPG
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Caiman_latirostris_(UF_62649)_C.JPG
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Caiman_latirostris_(UF_62649)_Lateral_C.JPG
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Callopistes_maculatus_(FMNH_223689.)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Callopistes_maculatus_(FMNH_223689)_L.JPG
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Callorhinus_ursinus_(FMNH_1546)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Callorhinus_ursinus_(FMNH_1546)_M.JPG
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Callorhinus_ursinus_(M-16761)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Callorhinus_ursinus_(M-16761)_M.JPG
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Calotes_mystaceus_(MVZ_79081)_L.JPG
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Calotes_mystaceus_(MVZ_79081)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Caluromys_derbianus_centralis_(FMNH_128385)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Caluromys_derbianus_centralis_(FMNH_128385)_M.JPG
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Canis_aureus_(FMNH_103920)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Canis_aureus_(FMNH_103920)_M.JPG
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Canis_lupus_(UMNH_20191)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Canis_lupus_(UMNH_20191)_M.JPG
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Carollia_brevicauda_(FMNH_106783)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Carollia_brevicauda_(FMNH_106783)_M.JPG
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Centurio_senex_(FMNH_58226)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Centurio_senex_(FMNH_58226)_M.JPG
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Chalarodon_madagascariensis_(LACM_163651)_L.JPG
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Chalarodon_madagascariensis_(LACM_163651)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Chironectes_minimus_minimus_(FMNH_90091)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Chironectes_minimus_minimus_(FMNH_90091)_M.JPG
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Chlamydosaurus_kingii_(LACM_159110)_L.JPG
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Chlamydosaurus_kingii_(LACM_159110)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Cnemidophorus_lemniscatus_(LACM_163974)_L.JPG
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Cnemidophorus_lemniscatus_(LACM_163974)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Conolophus_subcristatus_(FMNH_22206)_L.JPG
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Conolophus_subcristatus_(FMNH_22206)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Corucia_zebrata_(FMNH_257163)_L.JPG
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Corucia_zebrata_(FMNH_257163)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Corytophanes_cristatus_(LACM_164801)_L.JPG
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Corytophanes_cristatus_(LACM_164801)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Crateromys_schadenbergi_(FMNH_62294)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Crateromys_schadenbergi_(FMNH_62294)_M.JPG
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Crocodylus_acutus_(FMNH_69885)_C.JPG
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Crocodylus_acutus_(FMNH_69885)_Lateral_C.JPG
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Crocodylus_intermedius_(FMNH_75662)_C.JPG
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Crocodylus_intermedius_(FMNH_75662)_Lateral_C.JPG
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Crocodylus_johnsoni_(juvenile)_(M-6807)_C.JPG
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Crocodylus_johnsoni_(M-6807)_Lateral_C.JPG
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Crocodylus_mindorensis_(FMNH_21904)_C.JPG
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Crocodylus_mindorensis_(FMNH_21904)_Lateral_C.JPG
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Crocodylus_moreletii_(UF_29160)_C.JPG
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Crocodylus_moreletii_(UF_29160)_Lateral_C.JPG
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Crocodylus_niloticus_(Unnumbered)_Lateral_C.JPG
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Crocodylus_niloticus_(UT_unnumbered)_C.JPG
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Crocodylus_novaeguineae_(FMNH_14044)_C.JPG
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Crocodylus_novaeguineae_(FMNH_14044)_Lateral_C.JPG
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Crocodylus_palustris_(FMNH_31537)_C.JPG
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Crocodylus_palustris_(FMNH_31537)_Lateral_C.JPG
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Crocodylus_palustris_(FMNH_51691)_C.JPG
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Crocodylus_palustris_(FMNH_51691)_Lateral_C.JPG
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Crocodylus_porosus_(M-6805)_C.JPG
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Crocodylus_porosus_(M-6805)_Lateral_C.JPG
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Crocodylus_siamensis_(M-6812)_C.JPG
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Crocuta_crocuta_(UMNH_4699)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Crocuta_crocuta_(UMNH_4699)_M.JPG
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Crotophytus_collaris_(M-6964)_L.JPG
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Crotophytus_collaris_(M-6964)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Ctenosaura_pectinata_(UF_55461)_L.JPG
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Ctenosaura_pectinata_(UF_55461)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Ctenosaura_similis_(M-9259)_L.JPG
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Ctenosaura_similis_(M-9259)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Cyclura_cornuta_(LACM_163153)_L.JPG
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Cyclura_cornuta_(LACM_163153)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Dasypus_novemcinctus_mexicanus_(UMNH_37172)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Dasypus_novemcinctus_mexicanus_(UMNH_37172).JPG
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Dasypus_novemcinctus_mexicanus_UMNH_37172.JPG
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Dasyurus_hallucatus_(FMNH_119803)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Dasyurus_hallucatus_(FMNH_119803)_M.JPG
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Dendrolagus_bennettianus_(FMNH_57614)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Dendrolagus_bennettianus_(FMNH_57614)_M.JPG
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Dendrolagus_lumholtzi_lumholtzi_(FMNH_60897)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Dendrolagus_lumholtzi_lumholtzi_(FMNH_60897)_M.JPG
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Dicrodon_guttulatum_(MVZ_85410)_L.JPG
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Dicrodon_guttulatum_(MVZ_85410)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Didelphis_virginiana_(UMNH_28734)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Didelphis_virginiana_(UMNH_28734)_M.JPG
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Dipsosaurus_dorsalis_(M-11992)_L.JPG
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Dipsosaurus_dorsalis_(M-11992)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Dorcopsis_hageni_(FMNH_128373)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Dorcopsis_hageni_(FMNH_128373)_M.JPG
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Dracaena_guianensis_(MVZ_79247)_L.JPG
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Dracaena_guianensis_(MVZ_79247)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Dromiciops_bozinovici_(FMNH_22671)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Dromiciops_bozinovici_(FMNH_22671)_M.JPG
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Dugong_dugong_(MVZ_101162)_M.JPG
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Egernia_stokesii_(FMNH_51707)_L.JPG
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Egernia_stokesii_(FMNH_51707)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Elgaria_coerulea_(MVZ_129981)_L.JPG
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Elgaria_coerulea_(MVZ_129981)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Equus_caballus_(UMNH_14981)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Equus_caballus_(UMNH_14981)_M.JPG
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Erignathus_barbatus_(M-12409)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Erignathus_barbatus_(M-12409)_M.JPG
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Eumetopias_jubatus_(UMNH_7022)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Eumetopias_jubatus_(UMNH_7022)_M.JPG
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Felis_silvestris_(FMNH_151604)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Felis_silvestris_(FMNH_151604)_M.JPG
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Galerella_sanguinea_(FMNH_83649)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Galerella_sanguinea_(FMNH_83649)_M.JPG
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Gambelia_wislizenii_(M-1471)_L.JPG
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Gambelia_wislizenii_(M-1471)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Gavialis_gangeticus_(NHM_R._Unnumbered)_C.JPG
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Gavialis_gangeticus_(Unnumbered)_Lateral_C.JPG
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Geoxus_valdivianus_(FMNH_127723)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Geoxus_valdivianus_(FMNH_127723)_M.JPG
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Gowidon_longirostris_(LACM_163907)_L.JPG
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Gowidon_longirostris_(LACM_163907)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Gulo_gulo_(M-14036)_M.JPG
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Gulo_gulo_luscus_(UMNH_18294)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Gulo_gulo_luscus_(UMNH_18294)_M.JPG
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Halichoerus_grypus_(UMNH_32969)_M.JPG
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Heloderma_suspectum_(MVZ_222435)_L.JPG
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Heloderma_suspectum_(MVZ_222435)_Lateral_L.JPG
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Histriophoca_fasciata_(UMNH_18745)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Histriophoca_fasciata_(UMNH_18745)_M.JPG
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Hydrodamalis_gigas_(recently_extinct)_(MVZ_107764)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Hydrodamalis_gigas_(recently_extinct)_(MVZ_107764)_M.JPG
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Hydromys_chrysogaster_(FMNH_60962)_Lateral_M.JPG
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Hydromys_chrysogaster_(FMNH_60962)_M.JPG
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Hydrosaurus_amboiensis_(LACM_164585)_L.JPG
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Iguana_iguana_(LACM_163133)_L.JPG
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Kentropyx_pelviceps_(MVZ_174864)_L.JPG
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Laemanctus_longipes_(FMNH_213398)_L.JPG
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Lasiorhinus_latrifrons_(FMNH_187450)_M.JPG
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Lobodon_carcinophagus_(MVZ_127757)_M.JPG
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Lophostoma_silvicolum_(FMNH_68372)_M.JPG
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Lutra_lutra_(FMNH_85860)_M.JPG
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Lutreolina_crassicaudata_paranalis_(FMNH_24375)_M.JPG
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Macropus_()_sp._UMNH_29043.JPG
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Macropus_agilis_(FMNH_119814)_M.JPG
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Macropus_eugenii_(FMNH_49339)_M.JPG
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Macropus_giganteus_(FMNH_160060)_M.JPG
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Macropus_rufus_(FMNH_44274)_M.JPG
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Macrotis_lagotis_lagotis_(FMNH_104785)_M.JPG
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Marmosa_mexicana_UMNH_2562.JPG
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Martes_americana_(UAM-0797)_M.JPG
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Melanosuchus_niger_(UF_53600)_C.JPG
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Metachirus_nundicaudatus_(FMNH_169803)_M.JPG
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Microlophus_pervianus_(LACM_164629)_L.JPG
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Micromys_minutus_(FMNH_36445)_M.JPG
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Micronycteris_hirsuta_(FMNH_180714)_M.JPG
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Mirounga_angustirostris_(MVZ_153250)_M.JPG
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Mirounga_angustirostris_(MVZ_162298)_M.JPG
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Mus_musculus_(M-1820)_M.JPG
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Mymecobius_fasciatus_(FMNH_35259)_M.JPG
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Nectomys_squamipes_(FMNH_141630)_M.JPG
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Ochotona_princeps_figginsi_UMNH_41288.JPG
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Ochotona_princeps_figginsi_UMNH_41289.JPG
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Ochotona_princeps_schisticeps_UMNH_39002.JPG
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Ochotona_princeps_schisticeps_UMNH_39003.JPG
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Ochotona_princeps_schisticeps_UMNH_39004.JPG
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Ochotona_princeps_UMNH_31062.JPG
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Odobenus_rosmarus_divergens_(UMNH_18744)_M.JPG
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Odocoileus_hemionus_hemionus_UMNH_12757.JPG
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Osteolaemus_tetraspis_(M-6774)_C.JPG
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Otaria_byronia_(MVZ_139508)_M.JPG
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Otocyon_megalotis_(M-4943)_M.JPG
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Paleosuchus_palpebrosus_(FMNH_69867)_C.JPG
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Paleosuchus_palpebrosus_(FMNH_69869)_C.JPG
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Paleosuchus_trigonatus_(M-11981)_C.JPG
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Panthera_leo_(UMNH_14969)_M.JPG
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Paradoxurus_hermaphroditus_(FMNH_140476)_M.JPG
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Peromyscus_maniculatus_sonoriensis_UMNH_41216.JPG
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Peromyscus_maniculatus_sonoriensis_UMNH_41217.JPG
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Peromyscus_maniculatus_sonoriensis_UMNH_41222.JPG
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Peromyscus_maniculatus_sonoriensis_UMNH_41223.JPG
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Petrogale_penicillata_herberti_(FMNH_64430)_M.JPG
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Phalanger_gymnotis_(FMNH_60402)_M.JPG
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Phalanger_orientalis_breviceps_(FMNH_54021)_M.JPG
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Phascolarctus_cinereus_(FMNH_112541)_M.JPG
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Philander_opossum_canus_(FMNH_66412)_M.JPG
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Phoca_vitulina_(M-12515)_M.JPG
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Phrynosoma_coronatum_(LACM_164829)_L.JPG
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Phymaturus_palluma_(MVZ_92908)_L.JPG
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Plica_plica_(UF_99144)_L.JPG
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Potorous_tridactylus_apicalis_(FMNH_98902)_M.JPG
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Procyon_lotor_(UMNH_37241)_M.JPG
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Rattus_leucopus_(FMNH_60988)_M.JPG
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Rattus_rattus_(M-2798)_M.JPG
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Sarcophilus_laniarius_(FMNH_81525)_M.JPG
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Sciurus_niger_UMNH_42968.JPG
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Sciurus_niger_UMNH_42974.JPG
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Sciurus_niger_UMNH_42975.JPG
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Sciurus_niger_UMNH_43062.JPG
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Scleoporus_variabilis_(MVZ_79596)_L.JPG
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Shinisaurus_crocodilurus_(MVZ_204291)_L.JPG
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Sphenodon_punctatus_(UF_11978)_S.JPG
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Spilocuscus_maculatus_(FMNH_124553)_M.JPG
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Sylvilagus_nuttallii_grangeri_UMNH_41598.JPG
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Sylvilagus_nuttallii_UMNH_19190.JPG
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Tamandua_mexicana_chiriquensis_(UMNH_22426)_M.JPG
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Teius_teyou_(MVZ_92947)_L.JPG
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Thylacinus_cynocephalus_(FMNH_81522)_M.JPG
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Thyrogale_billarderii_(FMNH_160077)_M.JPG
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Tiliqua_rugosa_(UF_99164)_L.JPG
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Tomistoma_schlegelli_(M-6820)_C.JPG
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Trichochus_manatus_(MVZ_90711)_M.JPG
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Trichosurus_vulpecula_(FMNH_19804)_M.JPG
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Tupinambis_teguixin_(M-11685)_L.JPG
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Uma_scorparia_(LACM_164209)_L.JPG
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Uromastyx_acanthinura_(UF_84847)_L.JPG
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Uromastyx_aegyptius_(FMNH_63961)_L.JPG
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Ursus_americanus_(UMNH_18753)_M.JPG
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Ursus_maritimus_(FMNH_33462)_M.JPG
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Varanus_bengalensis_(LACM_159019_L.JPG
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Varanus_exanthematicus_albogularis_(LACM_163943)_L.JPG
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Varanus_komodoensis_(LACM_121971)_L.JPG
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Varanus_niloticus_(M-3814)_L.JPG
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Varanus_salvator_(UF_56879)_L.JPG
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Vombatus_ursinus_hirstutus_(FMNH_33604)_M.JPG
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Xenosaurus_grandis_(FMNH_211833)_L.JPG
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Zalophus_californianus_(M-12416)_M.JPG
Abstract
Cranial morphology is remarkably varied in living amniotes, ranging from short-faced mammals to the elongate snouts of crocodylians. This diversity of shapes is thought to correspond with feeding ecology, a relationship repeatedly demonstrated at smaller phylogenetic scales, but one that remains untested across amniote phylogeny. Using a combination of 2D geometric and linear morphometrics, we investigate the links between phylogenetic relationships, diet, and skull shape in an expansive dataset of extant amniotes with teeth: mammals, lepidosaurs, and crocodylians. We find that both phylogeny and diet have statistically significant effects on skull shape, although these effects differ depending on the dataset analyzed. The three major clades largely partition morphospace, each plotting in separate regions with limited overlap. Mammals and squamates extensively diversify within their respective regions. Among all three groups, dietary generalists often occupy clade-specific central regions of morphospace. Some parallel changes in skull shape occur in clades with distinct evolutionary histories but similar diets. However, members of a given clade often present distinct skull shape solutions for a given diet, and the vast majority of species retain the unique aspects of their ancestral skull plan, underscoring the limits of morphological convergence due to ecology in amniotes. These data demonstrate that certain skull shapes may provide functional advantages suited to particular diets, but accounting for both phylogenetic history and ecology can provide a more nuanced approach for inferring the ecology and functional morphology of cryptic or extinct amniotes.