Inter-sexual signals that reveal developmental or mating status have evolved repeatedly in females of many animal lineages. Such signals can have important functions in sexual conflict over mating and can shape sexually antagonistic coevolution. However, we know little about how female signal development modifies mating harassment and thereby shape sexual conflict. Here, we combine phylogenetic comparative analyses of a color polymorphic damselfly genus (Ischnura) with behavioral experiments in one target species to investigate the evolutionary history and current adaptive function of female color development. Most Ischnura species have multiple female color morphs, one of which is typically male colored (“male mimics”). In our target species (I. elegans), males and male-mimicking females express a blue abdominal patch throughout post-emergence life. We demonstrate experimentally by phenotypic manipulations of this color signal, that in sexually dimorphic females, developmentally plastic expression of this signalling trait reduces pre-mating harassment prior to sexual maturity. Across species, this signal evolves rapidly, but in sexually dimorphic females, its origin is contingent upon the abdomen color expressed by co-occurring male-colored females. Our results suggest that cross-sexual transfer and subsequent co-option of an original male trait to a novel female anti-harassment function modulates sexual conflict driven by pre-mating interactions.
Sampling effort for field mating rates and fecundity
Date, location and catching effort (min) for each field visit between 2015-2017.
field_visits.csv
Field mating rates
Mating activity of females of Ischnura elegans in the field. Each record consists of an individual female, belonging to one of three heritable colour morphs. Females were classified as "immature" or "mature" based on their developmental colour phase. The "Copula" column indicates whether females were mating (1) or single (0) when found.
field_mating.csv
Field fecundity
Fecundity (number of eggs) of field-mated females of Ischnura elegans. Each record consists of an individual female, belonging to one of three heritable colour morphs. Females were classified as "immature" or "mature" based on their developmental colour phase. Mating females were brought to an indoor lab for oviposition.
field_fecundity.csv
Effects of abdoment colour on inter-sexual interactions
Intersexual interactions in experimental trials where female abdomen colour was manipulated to alter their perceived developmental state. Each row represents a female in an experimental trial. There are two female-age categories and three heritable colour morphs. The "Phenotype" column indicates the abdomen colour displayed by each female. The "Treatment" column indicates whether such colour matches the actual developmental stage (control), advances the perceived developmental stage (forward) or conceals female maturity (reverse). We recorded male approaches to females, clasping attempts, tandem formation and mating activity.
LowD.csv
Effects of abdoment colour on mating probability
Mating activity in experimental trials with Ischnura elegans, where female abdomen colour was manipulated. Each row represents a female in a trial. There are two female-age categories and three heritable colour morphs. The "Phenotype" column indicates the abdomen colour displayed by each female. The "Treat" column indicates whether such colour matches the actual developmental stage (control), advances the perceived developmental stage (forward) or conceals female maturity (reverse). Mating activity was not recorded (NA) when females died within the 24 h trial.
Copula_24L-long.csv
Pilot experiment on the effects of female abdomen colour
Intersexual interactions in pilot trials where female abdomen colour was manipulated to alter their perceived developmental state. Each row represents a female in an experimental trial. Female age categories, heritable morphs and experimental treatments are the same as in the main experiment. The "Paint" column indicates whether control females were painted with their actual colour or not painted. We recorded male approaches to females, contacts, clasping attempts, tandem formation,mating activity, male-male contacts and female grooming activity.
HighD.csv
Ischnura alignment
Concatenated alignment of five loci and 41 species of Ischnura damselflies.
IschnuraConc.nex
Posterior trees
Sample of 1000 posterior trees drawn from phylogenetic inference of the genus Ischnura. Methods for phylogentic inference are described in the Appendix.
Fixed_GMC_trees.nex
Maximum a posteriori tree
Maximum a posteriori tree computed from phylogenetic inference of the damselfly genus Ischnura. Methods for phylogenetic inference are described in the Appendix.
Fixed.GMC_MAP.tree
Colour traits in Ischnura females
Presence of four colour traits in females of the damselfly genus Ischnura. Each row corresponds to a species. We recorded: the presence of a blue patch in male-coloured A-females, the presence of a blue patch in H-females, which are markedly different from males, the presence of an immature Aurantica colour phase and the presence of developmental pruinosity. Missing data is represented with a hyphen (-). For the presence of a blue patch in A- and H- females, "0" indicates the morph is absent in a species, "1" corresponds to continuous expression of the blue patch throughout development, "2" corresponds immature-only expression of the blue patch and "3" represents cases where the blue patch is not expressed at any point in development.
lambda.csv
Developmental expression of a colour signal in Ischnura damselflies
Developmental expression of an abdominal blue patch in damselflies of the genus Ischnura. Each row represents a species. Expression of the blue patch was categorized as "continuous" throughout development, "immature" or absent and was recorded separately for males and two heritable female morphs. In female-monomorphic species, expression of the trait in the missing morph cannot be recorded and is set to "NA".
tips_states.csv
Expression of a blue patch in A-females
Data file used in BayesTraits analysis of the evolution of blue abdominal patch in A-females of the damselfly genus Ischnura. The first column gives species names and the second column shows the character states for the expression of the blue patch. "0" indicates A-females are absent in a species. "1" corresponds to continuous expression of the blue patch throughout development. "2" corresponds immature-only expression of the blue patch and "3" represents cases where A-females exist but do not express a blue patch at any point in development.
AMult.txt
Expression of a blue patch in A-females - missing morph to NA
Data file used in BayesTraits analysis of the evolution of blue abdominal patch in A-females of the damselfly genus Ischnura. The first column gives species names and the second column shows the character states for the expression of the blue patch. Here, species lacking the A-morph are treated as missing data (-). "1" corresponds to continuous expression of the blue patch throughout development. "2" corresponds immature-only expression of the blue patch and "3" represents cases where A-females exist but do not express a blue patch at any point in development.
AMultNA.txt
Correlated evolution between A- and H-females
Data used for BayesTraits analysis of correlated evolution between the expression of a blue abdominal patch in A-females and H-females of the genus Ischnura. The first column gives the species names. The and third column provide character states for A- and H-females respectively. "0" indicates the absence of the blue patch and "1" indicates the presence of the blue patch at any point in development. Missing data for H-females is represented with a hyphen (-).
Corr.txt
Correlated evolution between continuos expression in A-females and immature expression in H-females
Data used for BayesTraits analysis of correlated evolution between the continuous expression of a blue abdominal patch in A-females and the immature expression of the blue patch in H-females of the genus Ischnura. The first column gives the species names. The and third column provide character states for A- and H-females respectively. "0" indicates the absence of the blue patch and "1" indicates the presence of the blue patch throughout adult life of A-females and in the immature phase for H-females. Missing data for H-females is represented with a hyphen (-).
CorrC.txt
Correlated evolution between immature A- and H-females
Data used for BayesTraits analysis of correlated evolution between the immature-only expression of a blue abdominal patch in A- and H-females of the genus Ischnura. The first column gives the species names. The and third column provide character states for A- and H-females respectively. "0" indicates the absence of the blue patch and "1" indicates the presence of the blue patch only during the immature phase. Missing data for H-females is represented with a hyphen (-).
CorrI.txt