The evolution of sociality is one of the major evolutionary transitions in the history of life and a key step in this transition is the occurrence of kin associations. Yet, the question of what demographic processes and environmental factors generate kin-structured populations and drive kin-directed cooperation remains open.

In this review, we synthesize 30 years of studies of the long-tailed tit Aegithalos caudatus, which has a kin-selected cooperative breeding system with redirected help: failed breeders may help to raise offspring of conspecifics, typically relatives, breeding nearby. We describe the use of ecological, demographic, genetic and behavioural approaches to reveal: (a) how kin-structured populations (here ‘kin neighbourhoods’) arise; (b) why the prevalence of cooperation varies among populations and individuals; and (c) how variation in dispersal and opportunities for cooperation influence individual fitness.

The kin neighbourhoods of long-tailed tits arise from three processes. First, natal dispersal is limited and sex-biased so many individuals, especially males, recruit as breeders close to their natal site. Second, neither dispersal nor migration necessarily disrupts kin associations because long-tailed tits often move with close relatives. Third, a small effective population size driven by high nest predation rates enhances within-population relatedness. Together, these processes set the scene for kin-directed helping behaviour by causing spatial clustering of relatives.

The prevalence of cooperation within kin neighbourhoods depends on several factors, both at the population-level (annual nest predation rate and length of the breeding season) and individual-level (relatedness, familiarity, sex and condition). However, limited information on prior social association and the reliability of kin discrimination cues hampers our current understanding of individual helping decisions. 

Finally, variation in dispersal within and between sexes affects the probability of interacting with kin, the likelihood of cooperation, and accrual of the direct and indirect components of inclusive fitness.

We use this comprehensive understanding of the factors driving cooperative behaviour in long-tailed tits to highlight gaps in knowledge and suggest future avenues for research in this system, and to make general inferences about the role of dispersal, demography and kinship in social evolution.

This data originates from the long-term monitoring of a wild population of long-tailed tit in the Rivelin Valley (UK). Most individuals were captured and colour-ringed, and every breeding attempt was closely monitored since 1994, allowing detailed data on local dispersal and recruitment rates across breeding seasons. We refer the reader to the publication for the method on actual data collection in the field. In short, the identity of each breeder was possible, at the vincinity of their nest, thanks to the unique colour ring combination their bare on their legs. Nestlings were also ringed with unique combinations of colour-rings. That allowed us to detect local recruits and estimate the proportion of fledglings that recruited locally, for each year (first table), and the dispersal distance they performed (distance between their natal nest in year Y and their first ever breeding nest in year Y+1).