Dataset DOI: 10.5061/dryad.1c59zw49s

Description of the data and file structure

Data Description:
The dataset was compiled to investigate the ecological traits and environmental tolerances of woody plant species driving encroachment in African savannas and grasslands. Data were collected across six dominant woody genera (Combretum, Dichrostachys, Prosopis, Senegalia, Terminalia, and Vachellia). For each species, information was collated on:

• Species identity and taxonomy (Genus, Species, Clade),
• Encroacher status (encroacher vs. non-encroacher)
• Climatic niche variables (median and range of temperature and precipitation) - calculated using worldclim data
• Geographic range size estimates - calculated using alphahull package in R
• Functional traits relevant to survival and establishment, including maximum plant height, plant habit, spinescence, and nitrogen-fixation potential - synthesised from published literature 

Data were extracted from published sources, global climate databases (WorldClim), and trait databases, and processed to ensure consistency across species. Missing values were removed for analyses requiring complete datasets. This dataset supports comparative analyses of encroacher vs. non-encroacher species, enabling reuse for ecological modeling, trait-based assessments, and conservation planning.

NAindicates that data were not available for a given species or variable. These values represent missing data and should not be interpreted as zero or absence.

Files and variables

File: GCB_coords_worldclim_2025.xlsx

Description: Contains species occurrence records and associated climatic data.

Variables

• X – Row index / unique identifier (—); Not used in models
• GBIF_species – Species name from GBIF occurrences (—); Used to link occurrences to traits and climatic data
• decimalLatitude – Latitude of occurrence point (Decimal degrees); Used to extract bioclimatic variables
• decimalLongitude – Longitude of occurrence point (Decimal degrees); Used to extract bioclimatic variables
• bio_1 – Annual Mean Temperature (°C); Predictor in GLMM for trait-environment relationships
• bio_2 – Mean Diurnal Range (Mean of monthly (max temp – min temp)) (°C); Predictor
• bio_3 – Isothermality (bio_2 / bio_7 × 100) (%); Predictor
• bio_4 – Temperature Seasonality (standard deviation ×100) (°C); Predictor
• bio_5 – Max Temperature of Warmest Month (°C); Predictor
• bio_6 – Min Temperature of Coldest Month (°C); Predictor
• bio_7 – Temperature Annual Range (bio_5 – bio_6) (°C); Predictor
• bio_8 – Mean Temperature of Wettest Quarter (°C); Predictor
• bio_9 – Mean Temperature of Driest Quarter (°C); Predictor
• bio_10 – Mean Temperature of Warmest Quarter (°C); Predictor
• bio_11 – Mean Temperature of Coldest Quarter (°C); Predictor
• bio_12 – Annual Precipitation (mm); Predictor
• bio_13 – Precipitation of Wettest Month (mm); Predictor
• bio_14 – Precipitation of Driest Month (mm); Predictor
• bio_15 – Precipitation Seasonality (Coefficient of Variation) (%); Predictor
• bio_16 – Precipitation of Wettest Quarter (mm); Predictor
• bio_17 – Precipitation of Driest Quarter (mm); Predictor
• bio_18 – Precipitation of Warmest Quarter (mm); Predictor
• bio_19 – Precipitation of Coldest Quarter (mm); Predictor

File: GCB_traits_2025.xlsx

Description: Contains the climatic variables, geographic range size (alpha X), and functional traits for the models.

Variables

• Clade – Taxonomic clade (Categorical)
• Genus – Taxonomic genus (Categorical)
• Species – Full species name (Categorical)
• Encroacher – Species encroacher status (Binary)
• Invasive – Species invasive status (Binary)
• N_fix_potential – Species nodulation (ability to fix nitrogen) (Yes / No)
• Region – Species indigenous region (Categorical)
• Max_height – Maximum species height (Metres)
• Dispersal – Seed dispersal method (Categorical)
• Ecosystem – Species native biome (Categorical)
• Spines – Presence of spines / spinescence (Yes / No)
• Habit – Species habit (Categorical)
• convex – Average convexity range (Continuous)
• alpha1 – Average alpha1 range (Continuous)
• alpha2 – Average alpha2 range (Continuous)
• alpha3 – Average alpha3 range (Continuous)
• alpha4 – Average alpha4 range (Continuous)
• alpha5 – Average alpha5 range (Continuous)
• alpha6 – Average alpha6 range (Continuous)
• bio_1_lower – Mean annual temperature (lower range) (°C)
• bio_1_upper – Mean annual temperature (upper range) (°C)
• bio_12_lower – Mean annual precipitation (lower range) (mm)
• bio_12_upper – Mean annual precipitation (upper range) (mm)
• bio_1_median – Median annual mean temperature (°C)
• bio_12_median – Median annual precipitation (mm)
• bio_1_range – Range of mean annual temperature (°C)
• bio_12_range – Range of annual precipitation (mm)

Code/software

• The dataset is provided as Microsoft Excel files (.xlsx) and can be viewed with any spreadsheet software, including free options such as:
  • LibreOffice Calc
  • Google Sheets
  • OpenOffice Calc
• No specialized code is required to view or use the data.

Access information

Other publicly accessible locations of the data:

• na

Encroacher status was derived from the following sources:

• Abule, E., Snyman, H. A., & Smit, G. N. (2007). Rangeland evaluation in the middle Awash valley of Ethiopia: II. Woody vegetation. Journal of Arid Environments, 70(2), 272–292.

  Adie, H., Nichols, G., & Lawes, M. J. (2023). Coastal Forest in Eastern Southern Africa has Savanna Bush-clump Origins. Ecosystems, 26, 1033–1046.

  Bekele-Tesemma, A. (2007). Useful trees and shrubs of Ethiopia: Identification, propagation and management in 17 agroclimatic zones.

  Belayneh, A., & Tessema, Z. K. (2017). Mechanisms of bush encroachment and its inter-connection with rangeland degradation in semi-arid African ecosystems: a review. Journal of Arid Land, 9(2), 299–312.

  Bell, K. L., Rangan, H., Fernandes, M., Kull, C. A., Murphy, J., Botanic, R., Victoria, G., & Bell, K. L. (2017). Chance long-distance or attained its pan-tropical distribution. Royal Society Open Science, 4(4), 1–18.

  Beyene, D., Berhanu, Y., & Angassa, A. (2024). Effects of livestock grazing on rangeland condition, plant species richness and wild ungulate population in a semi-arid savannah. African Journal of Ecology, 62(3).

  Bora, Z., Angassa, A., Wang, Y., Xu, X., & You, Y. (2021). Effect of Elevation on the Density and Species Composition of Encroacher Woody Plants in Borana Rangeland, Southern Ethiopia. Environmental Management, 67(6), 1075–1087.

  Bredenkamp, G. J. (1986). Ecological profiles of potential bush encroacher species in the Manyeleti Game Reserve. South African Journal of Botany, 52(1), 53–59. 

  Combrink, A. (2017). Savanna woody regeneration in response to different treatments of herbivory and fire. North-West University.

  Coppock, D. L. (1995). The Borana Plateau of Southern Ethiopia. Synthesis of Pastoral Research, Development and Change. Journal of Range Management, 48(6), 566. 

  Csurhes, S. (2016). Using ‘WeedSearch’ to assess the feasibility of eradicating 34 high-risk invasive plant species in Queensland.

  Csurhes, S. (2018). Pushing 37 weed species towards extinction in Queensland. 21st Australasian Weeds Conference, Figure 1, 115–118.

  Dingaan, M., & Preez, P. J. du. (2018). Vachellia (Acacia) karroo Communities in South Africa: An Overview. Pure and Applied Biogeography.

  Dirbaba, N. B., Denboba, M. A., & Tussie, G. D. (2014). Plant Diversity and Vegetation Structure in Encroached and Non-encroached Areas of Borana Rangelands: The Case of Hallona and Medhacho Pastoralist Associations. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology A, 4, 787–796.

  Erkovan, H. I., Clarke, P. J., & Whalley, R. D. B. (2013). Seed bank dynamics of Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. and its encroachment potential in sub-humid grasslands of eastern Australia. The Rangeland Journal, 35(4), 427–433.

  Garcia-Holquin, M., Bovey, R. W., & Schuster, J. L. (1991). Control of woody plants in grazing lands on the Pacific coast of Mexico. Journal of Range Management, 44(5), 508–512.

  Greiner, C., Vehrs, H. P., & Bollig, M. (2021). Land-use and Land-cover Changes in Pastoral Drylands: Long-term Dynamics, Economic Change, and Shifting Socioecological Frontiers in Baringo, Kenya. Human Ecology, 49(5), 565–577.

  Haile, M., Livingstone, J., Shibeshi, A., & Pasiecznik, N. (2021). Dryland restoration and dry forest management Ethiopia: Sharing knowledge to meet local needs and national commitments.

  Hendler, R., Herkenrath, T., Shikangalah, R., Blaum, N., & Geissler, K. (2023). Allometric relationships between sapwood area and shrub dimensions for six common Southern African savanna bush encroacher species: Universal or species-specific? Ecohydrology, 17(1). 

  Hermann, E., Milton, S., & Seymour, C. (2003). A Collation and Overview of Research Information on Combretum imberbe Warwa (Combretaceae) and Identification of Relevant Research Gaps to Inform.

   ro, H. S., & Treydte, A. C. (2021). Rainfall, fire and large-mammal-induced drivers of Vachellia drepanolobium establishment: Implications for woody plant encroachment in Maswa, Tanzania. African Journal of Ecology, 59(4), 934–943.

  Kitalong, A. H. (2008). Forests of Palau: a long-term perspective. Micronesica, 40(1/2), 23.

  Liao, C., Clark, P. E., & DeGloria, S. D. (2018). Bush encroachment dynamics and rangeland management implications in southern Ethiopia. Ecology and Evolution, 8(23), 11694–11703.

  Malan, P. W., Tiawoun, M. A. P., Molatlhegi, K. S., & Materechera, S. A. (2021). Effect of encroaching woody plant species on soil nutrients and selected soil chemical properties in communally managed semiarid savanna grazing lands in the North West province, South Africa. South African Journal of Plant and Soil, 38(1), 27–35.

  Maleko, D. D., Msangi, O. J., Mayani, J. D., Ruvuga, P. R., & Mtengeti, E. J. (2024). Dynamics in bush cover, local uses of encroaching woody plants and their preferences by foraging livestock in semi-arid rangeland in northern Tanzania. Environmental Development, 52.

  Miller, J. T., & Burd, M. (2014). Australia’s Acacia: unrecognised convergent evolution. In Invasion Biology and Ecological Theory: Insights from a Continent in Transformation (pp. 23–35). Cambridge University Press.

  Mndela, M., Madakadze, I. C., Nherera-Chokuda, F. V., Dube, S., Ramoelo, A., Mangwane, M., & Tjelele, J. T. (2022). Short-term responses of herbaceous vegetation to bush clearing in semi-arid rangelands of South Africa. Pastoralism, 12(1).

  Mndela, M., Tjelele, J. T., Madakadze, I. C., Mangwane, M., Samuels, I. M., Muller, F., & Pule, H. T. (2022). A global meta-analysis of woody plant responses to elevated CO2: implications on biomass, growth, leaf N content, photosynthesis and water relations. Ecological Processes, 11(1).

  Mochi, L. S., Aguiar, M. R., Aranda, M. J., & Biganzoli, F. (2023). Cattle grazing and herbaceous competition shape woody seedling establishment across environmental gradients in Neotropical savannas. Preprint.

  Mochi, L. S., Mazía, N., Biganzoli, F., & Aguiar, M. R. (2022). Contrasting effects of grazing on the early stages of woody encroachment in a Neotropical savanna. Basic and Applied Ecology, 60, 13–24.

  Mupangwa, J., Lutaaya, E., Shipandeni, M. N. T., Kahumba, A., Charamba, V., & Shiningavamwe, K. L. (2023). Utilising Encroacher Bush in Animal Feeding. In K. L. Shiningavamwe (Ed.), Towards Sustainable Food Production in Africa (pp. 239–265). Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

  Muvengwi, J., Ndagurwa, H. G. T., Nyenda, T., Mwembe, R., & Mbiba, M. (2017). Spatial pattern analysis of encroaching tree species (Vachellia karroo and Vachellia nilotica) after fire suppression in a semi-arid savanna. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 33(6), 411–414.

  Parolin, P., Barbosa da Silva, F. H., Nunes da Cunha, C., & Ferreira, L. V. (2015). Alternative paths of succession through shrub encroachment in Amazonian floodplains. Pesquisas, Botânica, 68 (January), 211–225.

  Pasiecznik, N. M., Harris, P. J. C., & Smith, S. J. (2003). Indentifying tropical Prosopis species: A field guide. 44(0).

  Rothauge, A. (2017). Bush Control Manual. 60.

  Sazima, M., Vogel, S., Do Prado, A. L., De Oliveira, D. M., Franz, G., & Sazima, I. (2001). The sweet jelly of Combretum lanceolatum flowers (Combretaceae): A cornucopia resource for bird pollinators in the Pantanal, western Brazil. Plant Systematics and Evolution, 227(3–4), 195–208.

  Shikangalah A, R. N., & Mapani B A, B. S. (2020). A Review of Bush Encroachment in Namibia: From a Problem to an Opportunity? Journal of Rangeland Science, 10 (3).

  Shikangalah, R., & Mapani, B. S. (2020). A review of bush encroachment in Namibia: From a problem to an opportunity? Journal of Rangeland Science, 10(3), 251–266.

  Skhosana, F. V. (2023). Patterns and mechanisms of woody plant encroachment and impacts on ecosystem processes and services.

  Skhosana, F. V., Thenga, H. F., Mateyisi, M. J., von Maltitz, G., Midgley, G. F., & Stevens, N. (2023). Steal the rain: Interception loses and rainfall partitioning by a broad-leaf and a fine-leaf woody encroaching species in a southern African semi-arid savanna. Ecology and Evolution, 13(3).

  Start, A. N. H. T. (2002). Using photographs to document environmental change: the effects of dams on the riparian environment of the lower Ord River. Australian Journal of Botany, 50(4), 465–480.

  Stevens, N., Lehmann, C. E. R. Murphy, B. P., & Durigan, G. (2017). Savanna woody encroachment is widespread across three continents. Global Change Biology, 23(1), 235–244. 

  Sunil, C., Somashekar, R. K., & Nagaraja, B. C. (2011). Impact of anthropogenic disturbances on riparian forest ecology and ecosystem services in Southern India. International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services and Management, 7(4), 273–282. 

  Tefera, S., Dlamini, B. J., & Dlamini, A. M. (2008). Dynamics of savannas in Swaziland: Encroachment of woody plants in relation to land use and soil classes and indigenous knowledge on plant utilization. Research Journal of Botany, 3(2).

  Tiawoun, M. A. P., Malan, P. W., & Comole, A. A. (2022). Composition and structural patterns of encroaching woody plant species along riparian zones of the Molopo River, North-West Province, South Africa. South African Journal of Botany, 147, 652–658.

  Turpie, J., Botha, P., Coldrey, K., Forsythe, K., & Knowles, T. (2019). Towards a policy on indigenous bush encroachment in South Africa.

  Van Auken, O. W., & Bush, J. K. (2013). Invasion of Woody Legumes. Springer. 

  Vautier, H., Sanon, M., & Sacandé, M. (2007). Seed leaflet. Forest & Landscape, 128, 1–2.

  Ward, D. M. (2010). Encroaching Woody Plants : Introduction and Long-Term Studies (Issue July).

  Yusuf, H., Treydte, A. C., Demissew, S., & Woldu, Z. (2011). Assessment of woody species encroachment in the grasslands of Nechisar National Park, Ethiopia. African Journal of Ecology, 49(4), 397–409.

  Zhou, Y., Tingley, M. W., Case, M. F., Coetsee, C., Kiker, G. A., Scholtz, R., Venter, F. J., & Staver, A. C. (2021). Woody encroachment happens via intensification, not extensification, of species ranges in an African savanna. Ecological Applications, 31(8), 1–14.

Missing values are represented as NA. These indicate that no value was available for the corresponding trait for a given observation (e.g. no valid measurement was obtained). NA denotes missing data and should not be interpreted as zero or "not applicable."