Ecological and socioeconomic factors associated with reported tick-borne viruses
Data files
Dec 02, 2025 version files 566.96 MB
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1_DataCleaning_TraitMatrix_v2.Rmd
20.34 KB
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2_DataCleaning_ZOVER_v2.Rmd
49.48 KB
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3_Analysis_BRT_v2.Rmd
19.23 KB
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4_Results_SummariesTables.Rmd
9.48 KB
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5_Figures_v2.Rmd
49.91 KB
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brt_result_citation_20251103.rds
621.80 KB
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brt_result_presence_20251103.rds
565.07 MB
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global_trait_matrix_20251031.csv
76.73 KB
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hsearch_paramtuning_datasummary_20251103.csv
9.73 KB
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README.md
35.75 KB
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vinf_data_20251103.txt
1.86 KB
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zover_matrix_formatted_preBRT_20251103.csv
71.83 KB
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zover_toprecognized_complete_pubmed__20240921.csv
916 KB
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zover_toprecognized_slim_pubmed_20251103.csv
8.94 KB
Abstract
Background: Public health resources are often allocated based on reported disease cases. However, for under-recognized infectious diseases such as tick-borne viruses, risk assessments should also account for ecological and socioeconomic factors that influence disease case reporting. This study identifies country-level predictors of tick-borne virus reporting and evaluates whether wealthier nations are more likely to report resource-intensive cases.
Methods: We applied boosted regression trees, a robust machine learning algorithm, to a comprehensive global database of tick-borne viruses and 24 environmental and socioeconomic variables.
Results: Countries with lower income inequality and greater expertise in veterinary, agricultural, or forestry sectors are more likely to report tick-borne virus cases. Wealthier nations with stronger institutional and professional capacity exhibit higher reporting rates, whereas countries affected by conflict or limited health infrastructure show underreporting. Climatic factors, particularly subarctic environments, also contribute to reporting likelihood, complementing the effects of socioeconomic drivers.
Conclusions: Disease reporting is shaped by both ecological context and socioeconomic capacity. Strengthening surveillance through targeted resource allocation and better integration of veterinary and public health expertise under the One Health framework could enhance global tick-borne disease mitigation. These findings provide valuable evidence to support the World Health Organization’s Global Arbovirus Initiative and emphasize the need for equitable disease surveillance across regions.
Dataset DOI: 10.5061/dryad.1g1jwsv9w
Description of the data and file structure
Files and variables
File: 1_DataCleaning_TraitMatrix_v2.Rmd
Description: Script for data processing to create global trait matrix. The final file output (global_trait_matrix_20251031.csv) will be merged with ZOVER outcome data. This data cleaning script is only helpful for those who want to see what steps I used to go from raw to clean covariates. Because underlying data are not CC0 compatible, we have removed the raw data but direct users to Data Availability below or Supplementary table 5 to find the raw data to plug into the data cleaning script.
File: 2_DataCleaning_ZOVER_v2.Rmd
Description: Script for data processing to create tick-virus outcomes. The final file output (zover_toprecognized_complete_pubmed_20240921.csv) will be used as the model outcomes. This data cleaning script is only helpful for those who want to see what steps I used to go from raw to clean tick-virus data using ZOVER data. Because underlying data are not CC0 compatible, we have removed the raw data but direct users to Data Availability below or Supplementary table 5 to find the raw data to plug into the data cleaning script.
File: zover_toprecognized_slim_pubmed_20251103.csv
Description: Cleaned data for tick-virus outcomes. This dataset will be merged with cleaned covariate data for boosted regression analysis.
Variables:
- admin: country name provided by
rnaturalearthpackage - iso_a3: country code provided by
rnaturalearthpackage - tbv_presence: binary code for a country based on having a reported tick-borne virus (1 = present, 0 = absent). Tick-borne virus data comes from ZOVER database.
- tbv_total: numeric value for a country based on the total number of reported tick-borne viruses. Tick-borne virus data comes from ZOVER database.
- pubmedcitation_percounty_total: numeric value for total PubMed citations regarding select tick-borne viruses. Citations were generated from the
easyPubMedpackage and aggregated for each country.
File: global_trait_matrix_20251031.csv
Description: Cleaned data for global trait matrix. This dataset will be merged with cleaned tick-virus data for boosted regression analysis.
Variables:
- admin: country name provided by
rnaturalearthpackage - iso_a3: country code provided by
rnaturalearthpackage - country: country name provided by
rnaturalearthpackage - wb_forested_pct: percent of country that is considered forested from World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_landarea_sqkm: total land area (sq km) of a country from World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_livestockprod_index: livestock production index from World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_accesselect_pct: percentage of the population that has access to electricity from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_expendedu_pct: percentage of education spending based on country's GNI from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_adultlit_rate: rate of adult literacy (adults over 15) from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_gradvetsforestag_pct: percent of tertiary graduates from veterinary, forestry, or agricultural programs from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_gradhealthwelf_pct: percent of tertiary graduates from healthcare or welfare programs from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_expendhealth_pct: percent of healthcare spending based on country’s GDP from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_gini_index: gini index (as a relative measure of inequality) from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_povertyline_pct: percent of population living below national poverty line from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_employedag: percent of population employed in agriculture from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_urbanpop_pct: percent of population living in urban areas from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_pestimportstot_mean: average pesticide imports based on USD$ from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- who_reportntd_mean: annual average reported number of people being treated for neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) from the World Health Organization’s Global Health Observation database. See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- sedac_popcounts_sum: human population counts from gridded population from NASA’s SEDAC database. See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- grdi_shdi_mean: average social vulnerability index from GRDI (0 to 1, least vulnerable to most vulnerable). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- glw_livestockdensity_mean: average livestock density from gridded cattle dataset (GLW v4). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- ee_vegdisim_mean: average vegetation dissimilarity index from EarthEnv (higher values represent more habitat fragmented locations). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wwf_ecoreg_total: total ecoregions per country from World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Olson et al. 2004. See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- humanpop_count: human population counts from gridded population from NASA’s SEDAC database. See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- sdhi_mean: average social vulnerability index from GRDI (0 to 1, least vulnerable to most vulnerable). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- livestock_mean: average livestock density from gridded cattle dataset (GLW v4). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- vegdisim_mean: average vegetation dissimilarity index from EarthEnv (higher values represent more habitat fragmented locations). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- ivsa_chapter: binary code for the presence/absence (1/0) of an International Veterinary Student’s Association chapter. See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- fao_pestusecapita_kmp: pesticide use per capita (kilometer per person) from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- kopp_climatezone_ID: Köppen-Geiger climate classiciation zone ID based on Rubel and Kottek 2010. See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- kopp_climatezone_name: Köppen-Geiger climate classiciation zone name based on Rubel and Kottek 2010. See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- acled_conflictexposure_pct: percentage of the total population exposed to conflict within 5 km based on Raleigh et al. 2023. See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- acled_conflictexposure_total: total number of conflict events per country based on Raleigh et al. 2023. See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
File: zover_matrix_formatted_preBRT_20251103.csv
Description: Cleaned and formatted dataset for boosted regression tree analysis. This data will also be used for figures and tables.
Variables:
- admin: country name provided by
rnaturalearthpackage - iso_a3: country code provided by
rnaturalearthpackage - tbv_presence: binary code for a country based on having a reported tick-borne virus (1 = present, 0 = absent). Tick-borne virus data comes from ZOVER database.
- tbv_total: numeric value for a country based on the total number of reported tick-borne viruses. Tick-borne virus data comes from ZOVER database.
- country: country name provided by
rnaturalearthpackage - wb_forested_pct: percent of country that is considered forested from World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- log_wb_landarea_sqkm: log10-transformed total land area (sq km) of a country from World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- log_wb_livestockprod_index: log10-transformed livestock production index from World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_accesselect_pct: percentage of the population that has access to electricity from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_expendedu_pct: percentage of education spending based on country's GNI from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_adultlit_rate: rate of adult literacy (adults over 15) from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_gradvetsforestag_pct: percent of tertiary graduates from veterinary, forestry, or agricultural programs from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_gradhealthwelf_pct: percent of tertiary graduates from healthcare or welfare programs from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_expendhealth_pct: percent of healthcare spending based on country’s GDP from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_gini_index: gini index (as a relative measure of inequality) from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_povertyline_pct: percent of population living below national poverty line from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_employedag: percent of population employed in agriculture from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wb_urbanpop_pct: percent of population living in urban areas from the World Bank (WB). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- log_who_reportntd_mean: log10-transformed annual average reported number of people being treated for neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) from the World Health Organization’s Global Health Observation database. See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- log_sedac_popcounts_sum: log10-transformed human population counts from gridded population from NASA’s SEDAC database. See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- grdi_shdi_mean: average social vulnerability index from GRDI (0 to 1, least vulnerable to most vulnerable). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- ee_vegdisim_mean: average vegetation dissimilarity index from EarthEnv (higher values represent more habitat fragmented locations). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- wwf_ecoreg_total: total ecoregions per country from World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Olson et al. 2004. See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- ivsa_chapter: binary code for the presence/absence (1/0) of an International Veterinary Student’s Association chapter. See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- kopp_climatezone_name: Köppen-Geiger climate classiciation zone name based on Rubel and Kottek 2010. See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- acled_conflictexposure_pct: percentage of the total population exposed to conflict within 5 km based on Raleigh et al. 2023. See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- log_acled_conflictexposure_total: log10-transformed total number of conflict events per country based on Raleigh et al. 2023. See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- log_pubmedcitation_percounty_total: log10-transformed numeric value for total PubMed citations regarding select tick-borne viruses. Citations were generated from the
easyPubMedpackage and aggregated for each country. - log_fao_pestusecapita_kmp: log10-transformed pesticide use per capita (kilometer per person) from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
- log_glw_livestockdensity_mean: log10-transformed average livestock density from gridded cattle dataset (GLW v4). See Data Availability below (or Supplementary table 5) for more source information.
File: 3_Analysis_BRT_v2.Rmd
Description: Script for running boosted regression trees for the (1) TBV presence model and (2) PubMed citation model. The final file outputs (1) brt_result_presence_20251103.rds and (2) brt_result_citation_20251103.rds are used for figures and tables in the manuscript.
File: brt_result_presence_20251103.rds
Description: Results from the boosted tree analysis for the tick-borne presence model. These results are used for figures and tables in the manuscript.
File: brt_result_citation_20251103.rds
Description: Results from the boosted tree analysis for the PubMed citation model. These results are used for figures and tables in the manuscript.
File: vinf_data_20251103.txt
Description: Results from the final TBV presence boosted regression tree model. These results reflect the variable importance of each covariate from our model and are used for figures and tables in the manuscript.
Variables:
- var: variable name
- rel.inf: mean relative influence of individual variable within boosted regression tree model (%)
- rse: standard error of relative influence of individual variable within boosted regression tree model (%)
- rvar: mean variable of relative influence of individual variable within boosted regression tree model (%)
- response_rank: rank of variables from most influential (1) to least influential (24)
File: hsearch_paramtuning_datasummary_20251103.csv
Description: Results from the hyperparameter tuning for the TBV presence boosted regression tree model. These are the results from the training runs and are used in supplementary figures.
Variables:
- row: row ID of result from hyperparamter tuning grid search
- trainAUC: training AUC from presence boosted regression tree model resulting from hyperparamter tuning grid search
- testAUC: test AUC from presence boosted regression tree model resulting from hyperparamter tuning grid search
- sen: sensitivity of presence boosted regression tree model resulting from hyperparamter tuning grid search
- spec: specificity of presence boosted regression tree model resulting from hyperparamter tuning grid search
- best: model metric from presence boosted regression tree model resulting from hyperparamter tuning grid search
- n.trees: number of trees parameter from presence boosted regression tree model resulting from hyperparamter tuning grid search
- interaction.depth: interaction depth of trees from presence boosted regression tree model resulting from hyperparamter tuning grid search
- shrinkage: shrinkage (learning rate) from presence boosted regression tree model resulting from hyperparamter tuning grid search
- n.minobsinnode: number of minimum observation per tree node from presence boosted regression tree model resulting from hyperparamter tuning grid search
- seed: random seed from presence boosted regression tree model resulting from hyperparamter tuning grid search
- id: ID of individual result from presence boosted regression tree model resulting from hyperparamter tuning grid search
- id2: ID of individual result from presence boosted regression tree model resulting from hyperparamter tuning grid search
File: 4_Results_SummariesTables.Rmd
Description: Script to run result summaries within text and tables in the manuscript.
File: 5_Figures_v2.Rmd
Description: Script to recreate figures in the main and supplementary text.
File: zover_toprecognized_complete_pubmed _20240921.csv
Description: Data to run summaries on the full pubmed dataset. Only helpful for some supplemental figures.
Variables:
- admin: country name provided by
rnaturalearthpackage - iso_a3: country code provided by
rnaturalearthpackage - tbv_presence: binary code for a country based on having a reported tick-borne virus (1 = present, 0 = absent). Tick-borne virus data comes from ZOVER database.
- tbv_total: numeric value for a country based on the total number of reported tick-borne viruses. Tick-borne virus data comes from ZOVER database.
- fix_viruses: name of tick-borne virus that was standardized after pulling data down from ZOVER database.
- viral_family: name of the family for reported tick-borne virus. Tick-borne virus data comes from ZOVER database.
- type: type of virus (e.g., double strand RNA, single strand DNA). Tick-borne virus data comes from ZOVER database.
- continent: location of where tick-borne virus sample originated from. Tick-borne virus data comes from ZOVER database.
- year_agg: assigned year of when tick-borne virus sample was collected, years were aggregated every five years. Tick-borne virus data comes from ZOVER database.
- from_tick: name of tick species of where the tick-borne virus sample was collected from. Tick-borne virus data comes from ZOVER database.
- tick_genus: name of tick genus of where the tick-borne virus sample was collected from. Tick-borne virus data comes from ZOVER database.
- references: source of where tick-borne virus record originated from. Tick-borne virus data comes from ZOVER database.
- sample_type: type of sample (e.g., tick, culture) of where tick-borne virus record originated from. Tick-borne virus data comes from ZOVER database.
- viruses: raw tick-borne virus name from ZOVER database.
- iso3c: country code from
rnaturalearthpackage - pubmedcitation_percounty_total: numeric value for total PubMed citations regarding select tick-borne viruses. Citations were generated from the
easyPubMedpackage and aggregated for each country.
File: Manuscript_ZOVERTBVs_DataAvailability_20251031.pdf
Description: Data availability statement as seen in Supplementary table 5.
Code/software
software: R version 4.4.1 (2024-06-14)
packages:
- countrycode_1.6.1
- easyPubMed_2.13
- gbm_2.2.2
- ggplot2_4.0.0
- ggpubr_0.6.0
- InformationValue_1.3.1
- janitor_2.2.0
- lubridate_1.9.3
- naniar_1.1.0
- openxlsx_4.2.7.1
- patchwork_1.3.0
- plotrix_3.8-4
- readr_2.1.5
- RColorBrewer_1.1-3
- rgho_3.0.2
- rnaturalearth_1.0.1
- ROCR_1.0-11
- rsample_1.2.1
- rworldmap_1.3-8
- scales_1.4.0
- sf_1.0-21
- stringr_1.5.2
- terra_1.8-70
- tidyverse_2.0.0
- wbstats_1.0.4
Access information
DATA AVAILABILITY
This table summarizes metadata for all variables used in the analysis. “Variable ID” corresponds to the term used in the manuscript figures. “Variable details” provide additional information to locate each indicator and its associated data source. The “Temporal scale” column describes the reference period or time range covered by each dataset. Many indicators were obtained from the World Bank (WB) using the wbstats R package (Piburn 2020 https://doi.org/10.11578/dc.20171025.1827). Data from the World Health Organization (WHO) were accessed via the rgho R package Filipovic-Pierucci 2024 https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=rgho). Full source attributions are listed below the table and can be found in manuscript Supplementary table 5.
| Source | Variable ID | Variable details | Temporal scale |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Forested | Forest area (% of land area) (WB: AG.LND.FRST.ZS) | The average value of reported values between 2015-2023 |
| 2 | Livestock Production | Livestock production index (2014-2016 = 100) (WB: AG.PRD.LVSK.XD) | The average value of reported values between 2010-2023 |
| 3 | Pesticides | Pesticides use per capita (WB: FAO_RP_5172) | The average value of reported values between 2015-2023 |
| 4 | Vet/Ag/Forest Grads | Percentage of graduates from tertiary education graduating from Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries and Veterinary programmes, both sexes (%) (WB: SE.TER.GRAD.AG.ZS) | The average value of reported values between 2015-2023 |
| 5 | Health/Welfare Grads | Percentage of graduates from tertiary education graduating from Health and Welfare programmes, both sexes (%) (WB: SE.TER.GRAD.HL.ZS) | The average value of reported values between 2015-2023 |
| 6 | Adult Literacy | Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) (WB: SE.ADT.LITR.ZS) | The average value of reported values between 2015-2023 |
| 7 | Education Expenditure | Adjusted savings: education expenditure (% of GNI) (WB: NY.ADJ.AEDU.GN.ZS) | The average value of reported values between 2015-2023 |
| 8 | Healthcare Expenditure | Current health expenditure (% of GDP) (WB: SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS) | The average value of reported values between 2015-2023 |
| 9 | Gini Index | Gini index (WB: SI.POV.GINI) | The average value of reported values between 2015-2023 |
| 10 | Below Poverty Line | Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of population) (WB: SI.POV.NAHC) | The average value of reported values between 2015-2023 |
| 11 | Electricity Access | Access to electricity (% of population) (WB: EG.EL.ACCS.ZS) | The average value of reported values between 2015-2023 |
| 12 | Land Area | Land area (sq. km) (WB: AG.LND.TOTL.K2) | The average value of reported values between 2015-2023 |
| 13 | Urban Population | Urban population (% of total population) (WB: SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS) | The average value of reported values between 2015-2023 |
| 14 | Employed in Agriculture | Employment in agriculture (% of total employment) (modeled ILO estimate) (WB: SL.AGR.EMPLY.ZS) | The average value of reported values between 2015-2023 |
| 15 | NTD Treatment | Average annual number of people requiring mass treatment for at least one Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD) (WHO: SDGNTDTREATMENT) | The average value of reported values between 2010-2023 |
| 16 | Population Counts | SEDAC CIEN Gridded Population of the World (GPW), v4 (~5 km) | 2015 |
| 17 | Social Vulnerability | SEDAC CIEN Subnational Human Development Index (SHDI) from the Global Gridded Relative Deprivation Index (GRDI) (~20 km) | The average value between 2010-2020 |
| 18 | Livestock density | Gilbert et al. 2022. Livestock density (~1 km) | 2015 |
| 19 | Habitat Fragmentation | Tuanmu et al. 2015 Vegetation Dissimilarity (~5 km) | 2005 |
| 20 | Total Ecoregions | Olson et al. 2004 Ecoregions | 1995 |
| 21 | Köppen-Geiger Climate Zone | Rubel and Kottek 2010 Koppen-Gieger climate classification zone | Represents the conditions between 1986-2010 |
| 22 | Conflict exposure (total events) | ACLED Total conflicts | 2020-2023 |
| 23 | Conflict exposure (% of population) | ACLED Percentage of population exposed to conflicts | 2020-2023 |
| 24 | IVSA Chapter Present | IVSA Presence of an International Veterinary Student’s Association chapter | Presence as of 2023 |
1World Bank. “Forest area (% of land area)” World Development Indicators, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States (FAO), https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.FRST.ZS. Accessed 31 Oct. 2025.
2World Bank. “Livestock production index (2014-2016)” World Development Indicators, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States (FAO), https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.PRD.LVSK.XD. Accessed 31 Oct. 2025.
3World Bank. “Pesticides use per capita” World Development Indicators, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States (FAO), https://data360.worldbank.org/en/indicator/FAO_RP_5172. Accessed 31 Oct. 2025.
4World Bank. “Tertiary graduates from Ag, Vet, or Forestry programs (% of population)” World Development Indicators, The World Bank Group, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.TER.GRAD.AG.ZS. Accessed 15 Aug. 2025.
5World Bank. “Tertiary graduates from Healthcare or Welfare programs (% of population)” World Development Indicators, The World Bank Group, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.TER.GRAD.AG.ZS. Accessed 15 Aug. 2025.
6World Bank. “Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above)” World Development Indicators, UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.ZS?view=chart. Accessed 31 Oct. 2025.
7World Bank. “Government expenditure on education, total (% of government expenditure)”World Development Indicators, UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GB.ZS. Accessed 31 Oct. 2025.
8World Bank. “Current health expenditure (% of GDP)” World Development Indicators, UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS. Accessed 31 Oct. 2025.
9World Bank. “Gini index” World Development Indicators, UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI. Accessed 31 Oct. 2025.
10World Bank. “Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of population)” World Development Indicators, The World Bank Group, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI. Accessed 31 Oct. 2025.
11World Bank. “Access to electricity (% of population)” World Development Indicators, The World Bank Group, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI. Accessed 31 Oct. 2025.
12World Bank. “Land area (sq. km)” World Development Indicators, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.TOTL.K2. Accessed 31 Oct. 2025.
13World Bank. “Urban population (% of total population)” World Development Indicators, World Urbanization Prospects United Nation (UN), https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS. Accessed 31 Oct. 2025.
14World Bank. “Employment in agriculture (% of total employment) (modeled ILO estimate)” World Development Indicators, ILO Modelled Estimates database (IOLEST) International Labour Organization (ILO), https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.ZS. Accessed 31 Oct. 2025.
15World Bank. “NTD interventions, people requiring interentions against NTDS (number)” World Health Organization, The Global Health Observatory, https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/indicators/indicator-details/GHO/reported-number-of-people-requiring-interventions-against-ntds#:~:text=In%202022%2C%201.62%20billion%20people,fewer%20than%20reported%20in%202021. Accessed 31 Oct. 2025.
16SEDAC. “Gridded Population of the World (GPW) v4” Earthdata, The Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center, https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/data/projects/gpw. Accessed 15 Aug. 2025.
17GRDI. “Global Gridded Relative Deprivation Index (GRDI) Subnational Human Development Index (SHDI)” Earthdata, The Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center, https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/data/catalog/sedac-ciesin-sedac-pmp-grdi-2010-2020-1.00. Accessed 15 Aug. 2025.
18Gilbert et al. 2022. “Global cattle distribution in 2015” Food and Agriculture Organization, Gridded Livestock of the World (GLW 4), https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/LHBICE. Accessed 15 Aug. 2025.
19Tuanmu et al. 2015. “Dissimilarity” EarthEnv, Global Habitat Heterogeneity, https://www.earthenv.org/texture. Accessed 15 Aug. 2025.
20Olson et al. 2004. “Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World” World Wildlife Fund - US, Conservation Science Program, https://www.earthenv.org/texture. Accessed 15 Aug. 2025.
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