Impacts of improved cookstove interventions on personal exposure to carbon monoxide and particulate matter in Zambia

Parsons, Stephanie 1 ; Hayes, Wesley1; Kabwe, Gillian2; Yamba, Francis3; Serenje, Nancy3; Bailis, Robert4; Jagger, Pamela5; Grieshop, Andrew1

Published May 02, 2025 on Dryad. https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.xd2547drx

Abstract

Eighty-four percent of sub-Saharan African households rely on polluting fuels (e.g., wood, charcoal) for cooking, leading to high levels of household air pollution (HAP). While switching to modern fuels/stoves could decrease HAP levels, they are not always available or affordable. Improved biomass cookstoves could provide an intermediate step supporting transitions from traditional biomass to clean burning fuels/stoves. We conducted two stove intervention trials in Lusaka, Zambia using targeted marketing/incentives to motivate participants to use improved biomass stoves, either the Mimi Moto (pellet) or the EcoZoom (charcoal). Before the intervention, 65% of participants exclusively used charcoal, while 27% relied on electricity to some extent for cooking. We measured 24-hour personal exposure to CO (n=747) and PM_2.5 (n=90) of primary cooks. We implemented several statistical approaches to estimate the effects of interventions on exposure: household-specific endline minus baseline exposure, ranksum testing, difference-in-differences analyses, and cross-sectional analyses. We did not find that switching from traditional charcoal stoves to either intervention stove was associated with significantly reduced exposures. However, cooks using electric stoves independent of the intervention did have significantly lower CO exposures than those using traditional charcoal, with greater electric stove use corresponding to greater exposure reductions. Variability in exposure was dominated by seasonal, regional, and neighborhood differences rather than household stove/fuel choices. A focus on HAP exposure from cooking in urban settings is unlikely to yield expected exposure reductions. Policy makers should consider pollution reduction policies/interventions that target ambient air quality in tandem with HAP-mitigating strategies to address air pollution health burden.

Dataset DOI: 10.5061/dryad.xd2547drx

Description of the data and file structure

We conducted two stove intervention trials in Lusaka, Zambia using targeted marketing and incentives to motivate traditional biomass stove users to switch to one of two improved biomass stoves, either the pellet burning Mimi Moto or the charcoal burning EcoZoom. We measured 24-hour CO (n=747) and PM2.5 (n=90) exposures of primary cooks. Primary cooks were outfitted with exposure monitors and instructed to wear them for 24 hours, unless sleeping or bathing, when they were instructed to keep the monitors nearby. Data collection also consisted of a structured household questionnaire that included questions about household demographics, cooking practices, household facilities, and economic decision making. The main decision maker (household head) and person most knowledgeable about cooking practices in the household (primary cook) were interviewed. Exposure data was hourly- and daily-averaged for analysis by participant and compared across participants by neighborhood, stove use group, and year/study phase. Additionally, we utilized publicly available ambient PM2.5 data from PurpleAir sensors in the area to compare personal PM2.5 exposure to ambient PM2.5.

This dataset is not intended to be standalone and use with the associated manuscript is likely required to fully interpret data variables and delineations. Detailed information regarding stove groups, ambient PM2.5 data, and statistical analyses are included in the manuscript.

Empty data cells (NaNs) are common in this dataset as the exposure monitoring participants were a substantially smaller subset from the larger questionnaire study participants. Thus, exposure data and questionnaire responses for questions only asked to exposure participants were not collected for many participants. NaNs are likely present for one of the following reasons:

Data was not collected for that participant (e.g., no CO data was collected, not an exposure monitoring participant so details about cooking location were not asked)
Data was thrown out after failing a quality control check (e.g., someone reported cooking for 25 hours a day, someone reported their age as 175 years)
Participants answered a question in a way such that a follow up question was not needed (e.g., participants who cook outdoors were not asked kitchen dimensions, participants who did not own their home were not asked how long they've owned their home)

List of commonly used acronyms in this dataset and their meaning:

HH - household
CO - carbon monoxide
PM2.5 - particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter < 2.5 micrometers
SI - stove influenced
ppm - parts per million
μgm-3 or μg/m3 - micrograms per meter cubed
CEEEZ - centre for energy, environment, and engineering Zambia
SM - SupaMoto
MM - Mimi Moto
Eco - EcoZoom
VL - VITALITE

Files and variables

File: ZCCS_2019_PM_hourly_CSV.csv

Description: hourly PM2.5 exposure in μgm-3 for all participants in 2019 (baseline)

Variables

HH ID: household ID
Compound: neighborhood
hour_0: hourly average PM2.5 from 00:00-00:59
hour_1: hourly average PM2.5 from 01:00-01:59
hour_2: hourly average PM2.5 from 02:00-02:59
hour_3: hourly average PM2.5 from 03:00-03:59
hour_4: hourly average PM2.5 from 04:00-04:59
hour_5: hourly average PM2.5 from 05:00-05:59
hour_6: hourly average PM2.5 from 06:00-06:59
hour_7: hourly average PM2.5 from 07:00-07:59
hour_8: hourly average PM2.5 from 08:00-08:59
hour_9: hourly average PM2.5 from 09:00-09:59
hour_10: hourly average PM2.5 from 10:00-10:59
hour_11: hourly average PM2.5 from 11:00-11:59
hour_12: hourly average PM2.5 from 12:00-12:59
hour_13: hourly average PM2.5 from 13:00-13:59
hour_14: hourly average PM2.5 from 14:00-14:59
hour_15: hourly average PM2.5 from 15:00-15:59
hour_16: hourly average PM2.5 from 16:00-16:59
hour_17: hourly average PM2.5 from 17:00-17:59
hour_18: hourly average PM2.5 from 18:00-18:59
hour_19: hourly average PM2.5 from 19:00-19:59
hour_20: hourly average PM2.5 from 20:00-20:59
hour_21: hourly average PM2.5 from 21:00-21:59
hour_22: hourly average PM2.5 from 22:00-22:59
hour_23: hourly average PM2.5 from 23:00-23:59

File: ZCCS_2021_CO_SIperiods_7_20_2.csv

Description: hourly mask variables for each HHID in 2021 where 0 means the primary cook was not experiencing 'stove-influenced' concentrations during that hour, while a 1 means they were; SI periods were estimated using CO exposure concentrations, n=7, alpha=20, and beta =2

Variables

HH ID: household ID
SI hours sum: total number of hours at 'stove influenced' concentrations
SI_CO_avg: average CO in ppm during SI periods only
hour_zero: if hour 00:00-00:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_one: if hour 01:00-01:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_two: if hour 02:00-02:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_three: if hour 03:00-03:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_four: if hour 04:00-04:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_five: if hour 05:00-05:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_six: if hour 06:00-06:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_seven: if hour 07:00-07:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_eight: if hour 08:00-08:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_nine: if hour 09:00-09:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_ten: if hour 10:00-10:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_eleven: if hour 11:00-11:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_twelve: if hour 12:00-12:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_thirteen: if hour 13:00-13:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_fourteen: if hour 14:00-14:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_fifteen: if hour 15:00-15:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_sixteen: if hour 16:00-16:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_seventeen: if hour 17:00-17:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_eighteen: if hour 18:00-18:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_nineteen: if hour 19:00-19:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_twenty: if hour 20:00-20:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_twentyone: if hour 21:00-21:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_twentytwo: if hour 22:00-22:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_twentythree: if hour 23:00-23:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)

File: ZCCS_2021_PM_SIperiods_7_20_2.csv

Description: hourly mask variables for each HHID in 2021 where 0 means the primary cook was not experiencing 'stove-influenced' concentrations during that hour, while a 1 means they were; SI periods were estimated using PM2.5 exposure concentrations, n=7, alpha=20, and beta =2

Variables

HH ID: household ID
SI hours sum: total number of hours at 'stove influenced' concentrations
SI_PM_avg: average PM2.5 in μgm-3 during SI periods only
hour_zero: if hour 00:00-00:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_one: if hour 01:00-01:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_two: if hour 02:00-02:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_three: if hour 03:00-03:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_four: if hour 04:00-04:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_five: if hour 05:00-05:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_six: if hour 06:00-06:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_seven: if hour 07:00-07:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_eight: if hour 08:00-08:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_nine: if hour 09:00-09:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_ten: if hour 10:00-10:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_eleven: if hour 11:00-11:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_twelve: if hour 12:00-12:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_thirteen: if hour 13:00-13:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_fourteen: if hour 14:00-14:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_fifteen: if hour 15:00-15:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_sixteen: if hour 16:00-16:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_seventeen: if hour 17:00-17:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_eighteen: if hour 18:00-18:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_nineteen: if hour 19:00-19:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_twenty: if hour 20:00-20:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_twentyone: if hour 21:00-21:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_twentytwo: if hour 22:00-22:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_twentythree: if hour 23:00-23:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)

File: ZCCS_2019_2021_Cross_Sectional_All_EM_CSV.csv

Description: compilation of all exposure data (24-hour averaged) and questionnaire data where participants for each year are treated as individual entries (as opposed to the same entry as in ZCCS_2019_2021_combined_EM_CSV); used for statistical analyses (Tables 3-4) and Figure 6.

Variables

HHID: household ID
Compound: neighborhood
Phase: baseline (BL) or endline (EL)
New HHs: whether household was a panel (0) or new household added at endline (1)
Season: cool or warm
stove_ind_grp: stove usage group: traditional charcoal, improved charcoal (excluding EcoZoom), charcoal + electric (primary traditional/improved charcoal, secondary electric), electric + charcoal (primary electric, secondary traditional/improved charcoal), electric exclusive, Mimi Moto primary or secondary (either primary or secondary use regardless of other stove), EcoZoom primary or secondary, and other (gas, wood, kerosene)
elec_mask: whether electricity was used for any cooking (0=no, 1=yes)
CO: 24 hour average CO in ppm
PM: 24 hour average PM2.5 in μgm-3
SI_CO_hours_7_20_2: total number of SI hours from the CO exposure profile and traditional procedure where n=7, alpha=20, and beta=2 (refer to Text S5 for more details)
SI_CO_7_20_2: average CO exposure in ppm during the SI periods from the traditional procedure where n=7, alpha=20, and beta=2 (refer to Text S5 for more details)
SI_PM_hours_7_20_2: total number of SI hours from the PM2.5 exposure profile and traditional procedure where n=7, alpha=20, and beta=2 (refer to Text S5 for more details)
SI_PM_7_20_2: average PM2.5 exposure in μgm-3 during the SI periods from the traditional procedure where n=7, alpha=20, and beta=2 (refer to Text S5 for more details)
SI_CO_charcHH: average CO exposure in ppm during the SI periods from the charcoal user baseline procedure (refer to Text S5 for more details)
SI_PM_charcHH: average PM2.5 exposure in μgm-3 during the SI periods from the charcoal user baseline procedure (refer to Text S5 for more details)
prim_stove: primary stove
sec_stove: secondary stove
prim_fuel: primary fuel
eco_count: number of meals cooked on EcoZoom in past 3 days
elec_count: number of meals cooked on electric in past 3 days
gaskero_count: number of meals cooked on gas or kerosene in past 3 days
imprcharc_count: number of meals cooked on improved charcoal in past 3 days
tradcharc_count: number of meals cooked on traditional charcoal in past 3 days
wood_count: number of meals cooked on wood in past 3 days
mimimoto_count: number of meals cooked on Mimi Moto in past 3 days
other_count: number of meals cooked on other in past 3 days
eco_perc: percentage of cooking on EcoZoom
elec_perc: percentage of cooking on electric
gaskero_perc: percentage of cooking on gas or kerosene
imprcharc_perc: percentage of cooking on improved charcoal
tradcharc_perc: percentage of cooking on traditional charcoal
wood_perc: percentage of cooking on wood
mimimoto_perc: percentage of cooking on Mimi Moto
gap_wall_roof: whether there is a gap between the wall and roof or not; only for those who cook indoors
openwindows: if there were open windows, meaning the participant vented or did not vent during cooking
cookloc: cooking location
cookloc_code: whether cooking was indoors or not indoors
expenditure_code: annual expenditure quintile
DiD_Time: difference-in-differences variable for time status; 0=baseline, 1=endline
DiD_Treat: difference-in-differences variable for treatment status; 0=control, 1=treatment; only for Kalingalinga and Ng'ombe neighborhoods
DiD_Treat_key: key for difference-in-differences interaction term of time and treatment (e.g., C0 is control at baseline, C1 is control at endline, T0 is treatment at baseline, T1 is treatment at endline)

File: ZCCS_2019_CO_SIperiods_7_20_2.csv

Description: hourly mask variables for each HHID in 2019 where 0 means the primary cook was not experiencing 'stove-influenced' concentrations during that hour, while a 1 means they were; SI periods were estimated using CO exposure concentrations, n=7, alpha=20, and beta =2

Variables

HH ID: household ID
SI hours sum: total number of hours at 'stove influenced' concentrations
SI_CO_avg: average CO in ppm during SI periods only
hour_zero: if hour 00:00-00:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_one: if hour 01:00-01:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_two: if hour 02:00-02:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_three: if hour 03:00-03:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_four: if hour 04:00-04:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_five: if hour 05:00-05:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_six: if hour 06:00-06:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_seven: if hour 07:00-07:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_eight: if hour 08:00-08:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_nine: if hour 09:00-09:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_ten: if hour 10:00-10:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_eleven: if hour 11:00-11:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_twelve: if hour 12:00-12:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_thirteen: if hour 13:00-13:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_fourteen: if hour 14:00-14:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_fifteen: if hour 15:00-15:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_sixteen: if hour 16:00-16:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_seventeen: if hour 17:00-17:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_eighteen: if hour 18:00-18:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_nineteen: if hour 19:00-19:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_twenty: if hour 20:00-20:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_twentyone: if hour 21:00-21:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_twentytwo: if hour 22:00-22:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)
hour_twentythree: if hour 23:00-23:59 was stove influenced (1) or not (0)

File: ZCCS_2019_ODK_HH_char_CSV.csv

Description: compilation of household and primary cook characteristics from questionnaires for 2019 participants used in Table 2

Variables

HH ID: household ID
Compound: neighborhood
hhmembercount: range of people living in the household
cook_ageyears: range of age of primary cook
cook_highestgrade: highest grade of primary cook. The numeric code key has been excluded to protect anonymity of participants.
cook_gender: cook gender. The numeric code key has been excluded to protect anonymity of participants.
type_homeownership: type of homeownership. The numeric code key has been excluded to protect anonymity of participants.
elecgrid_access: whether household has electric grid access (1) or not (0)
cook_loc: whether primary cook cooks indoors or not; 1=in, 2=in, 3=out, 4=out, 99=out
cook_loc_other: if cook_loc=99, then enumerator entered "other" here
stove_ind_grp: stove usage group: traditional charcoal, improved charcoal (excluding EcoZoom), charcoal + electric (primary traditional/improved charcoal, secondary electric), electric + charcoal (primary electric, secondary traditional/improved charcoal), electric exclusive, Mimi Moto primary or secondary (either primary or secondary use regardless of other stove), EcoZoom primary or secondary, and other (gas, wood, kerosene)
24 hour CO avg (ppm): 24 hour average CO in ppm
24 hour PM2.5 avg (ug/m^3): 24 hour average PM2.5 in μgm-3
EM_HH: whether the household was an exposure monitoring household (True) or not (False)
gap_wall_roof: whether there is a gap between the wall and roof (1) or not (0); only for those who cook indoors
num_openwindows: number of open windows when cooking; only for those who cook indoors
SI_hours: total number of SI hours from the CO exposure profile and traditional procedure where n=7, alpha=20, and beta=2 (refer to Text S5 for more details)

File: ZCCS_2021_EM_temp_hourly_CSV.csv

Description: hourly temperature recorded by PM2.5 exposure monitors in Celsius for all participants in 2021 (endline)

Variables

HH ID: household ID
Compound: neighborhood
day_avg: average temperature

hour_0: hourly average temperature from 00:00-00:59

hour_1: hourly average temperature from 01:00-01:59
hour_2: hourly average temperature from 02:00-02:59
hour_3: hourly average temperature from 03:00-03:59
hour_4: hourly average temperature from 04:00-04:59
hour_5: hourly average temperature from 05:00-05:59
hour_6: hourly average temperature from 06:00-06:59
hour_7: hourly average temperature from 07:00-07:59
hour_8: hourly average temperature from 08:00-08:59
hour_9: hourly average temperature from 09:00-09:59
hour_10: hourly average temperature from 10:00-10:59
hour_11: hourly average temperature from 11:00-11:59
hour_12: hourly average temperature from 12:00-12:59
hour_13: hourly average temperature from 13:00-13:59
hour_14: hourly average temperature from 14:00-14:59
hour_15: hourly average temperature from 15:00-15:59
hour_16: hourly average temperature from 16:00-16:59
hour_17: hourly average temperature from 17:00-17:59
hour_18: hourly average temperature from 18:00-18:59
hour_19: hourly average temperature from 19:00-19:59
hour_20: hourly average temperature from 20:00-20:59
hour_21: hourly average temperature from 21:00-21:59
hour_22: hourly average temperature from 22:00-22:59
hour_23: hourly average temperature from 23:00-23:59

File: ZCCS_2021_CO_hourly_CSV.csv

Description: hourly CO exposure in ppm for all participants in 2021 (endline)

Variables

HH ID: household ID
Compound: neighborhood
day_avg: average CO
hour_0: hourly average CO from 00:00-00:59
hour_1: hourly average CO from 01:00-01:59
hour_2: hourly average CO from 02:00-02:59
hour_3: hourly average CO from 03:00-03:59
hour_4: hourly average CO from 04:00-04:59
hour_5: hourly average CO from 05:00-05:59
hour_6: hourly average CO from 06:00-06:59
hour_7: hourly average CO from 07:00-07:59
hour_8: hourly average CO from 08:00-08:59
hour_9: hourly average CO from 09:00-09:59
hour_10: hourly average CO from 10:00-10:59
hour_11: hourly average CO from 11:00-11:59
hour_12: hourly average CO from 12:00-12:59
hour_13: hourly average CO from 13:00-13:59
hour_14: hourly average CO from 14:00-14:59
hour_15: hourly average CO from 15:00-15:59
hour_16: hourly average CO from 16:00-16:59
hour_17: hourly average CO from 17:00-17:59
hour_18: hourly average CO from 18:00-18:59
hour_19: hourly average CO from 19:00-19:59
hour_20: hourly average CO from 20:00-20:59
hour_21: hourly average CO from 21:00-21:59
hour_22: hourly average CO from 22:00-22:59
hour_23: hourly average CO from 23:00-23:59

File: ZCCS_2021_PM_hourly_CSV.csv

Description: hourly PM2.5 exposure in μgm-3 for all participants in 2021 (endline)

Variables

HH ID: household ID
Compound: neighborhood
day_avg: average PM2.5
hour_0: hourly average PM2.5 from 00:00-00:59
hour_1: hourly average PM2.5 from 01:00-01:59
hour_2: hourly average PM2.5 from 02:00-02:59
hour_3: hourly average PM2.5 from 03:00-03:59
hour_4: hourly average PM2.5 from 04:00-04:59
hour_5: hourly average PM2.5 from 05:00-05:59
hour_6: hourly average PM2.5 from 06:00-06:59
hour_7: hourly average PM2.5 from 07:00-07:59
hour_8: hourly average PM2.5 from 08:00-08:59
hour_9: hourly average PM2.5 from 09:00-09:59
hour_10: hourly average PM2.5 from 10:00-10:59
hour_11: hourly average PM2.5 from 11:00-11:59
hour_12: hourly average PM2.5 from 12:00-12:59
hour_13: hourly average PM2.5 from 13:00-13:59
hour_14: hourly average PM2.5 from 14:00-14:59
hour_15: hourly average PM2.5 from 15:00-15:59
hour_16: hourly average PM2.5 from 16:00-16:59
hour_17: hourly average PM2.5 from 17:00-17:59
hour_18: hourly average PM2.5 from 18:00-18:59
hour_19: hourly average PM2.5 from 19:00-19:59
hour_20: hourly average PM2.5 from 20:00-20:59
hour_21: hourly average PM2.5 from 21:00-21:59
hour_22: hourly average PM2.5 from 22:00-22:59
hour_23: hourly average PM2.5 from 23:00-23:59

File: ZCCS_2019_CO_hourly_CSV.csv

Description: hourly CO exposure in ppm for all participants in 2019 (baseline)

Variables

HH ID: household ID
Compound: neighborhood
day_avg: average CO
hour_0: hourly average CO from 00:00-00:59
hour_1: hourly average CO from 01:00-01:59
hour_2: hourly average CO from 02:00-02:59
hour_3: hourly average CO from 03:00-03:59
hour_4: hourly average CO from 04:00-04:59
hour_5: hourly average CO from 05:00-05:59
hour_6: hourly average CO from 06:00-06:59
hour_7: hourly average CO from 07:00-07:59
hour_8: hourly average CO from 08:00-08:59
hour_9: hourly average CO from 09:00-09:59
hour_10: hourly average CO from 10:00-10:59
hour_11: hourly average CO from 11:00-11:59
hour_12: hourly average CO from 12:00-12:59
hour_13: hourly average CO from 13:00-13:59
hour_14: hourly average CO from 14:00-14:59
hour_15: hourly average CO from 15:00-15:59
hour_16: hourly average CO from 16:00-16:59
hour_17: hourly average CO from 17:00-17:59
hour_18: hourly average CO from 18:00-18:59
hour_19: hourly average CO from 19:00-19:59
hour_20: hourly average CO from 20:00-20:59
hour_21: hourly average CO from 21:00-21:59
hour_22: hourly average CO from 22:00-22:59
hour_23: hourly average CO from 23:00-23:59

File: ZCCS_2019_EM_temp_hourly_CSV.csv

Description: hourly temperature recorded by PM2.5 exposure monitors in Celsius for all participants in 2019 (baseline)

Variables

HH ID: household ID
Compound: neighborhood

hour_0: hourly average temperature from 00:00-00:59

hour_1: hourly average temperature from 01:00-01:59
hour_2: hourly average temperature from 02:00-02:59
hour_3: hourly average temperature from 03:00-03:59
hour_4: hourly average temperature from 04:00-04:59
hour_5: hourly average temperature from 05:00-05:59
hour_6: hourly average temperature from 06:00-06:59
hour_7: hourly average temperature from 07:00-07:59
hour_8: hourly average temperature from 08:00-08:59
hour_9: hourly average temperature from 09:00-09:59
hour_10: hourly average temperature from 10:00-10:59
hour_11: hourly average temperature from 11:00-11:59
hour_12: hourly average temperature from 12:00-12:59
hour_13: hourly average temperature from 13:00-13:59
hour_14: hourly average temperature from 14:00-14:59
hour_15: hourly average temperature from 15:00-15:59
hour_16: hourly average temperature from 16:00-16:59
hour_17: hourly average temperature from 17:00-17:59
hour_18: hourly average temperature from 18:00-18:59
hour_19: hourly average temperature from 19:00-19:59
hour_20: hourly average temperature from 20:00-20:59
hour_21: hourly average temperature from 21:00-21:59
hour_22: hourly average temperature from 22:00-22:59
hour_23: hourly average temperature from 23:00-23:59

File: ZCCS_2019_2021_combined_EM_CSV.csv

Description: baseline (2019) and endline (2021) data matched for each participant; used for Figure 5.

Variables

HH ID: household ID
Compound: neighborhood
new_HH: whether household was a panel (0) or new household added at endline (1)
base CO: 24 hour average CO in ppm at baseline
base PM: 24 hour average PM2.5 in μgm-3 at baseline
end CO: 24 hour average CO in ppm at endline
end PM: 24 hour average PM2.5 in μgm-3 at endline
end EM temp: 24 hour average temperature measured by exposure monitor in C at endline
TOT_lvl: stove use status (kept using original, starting using intervention, etc.)
prim_stove_base: primary stove used at baseline
sec_stove_base: secondary stove used at baseline
stove_ind_base_grp: stove usage group at baseline: traditional charcoal, improved charcoal (excluding EcoZoom), charcoal + electric (primary traditional/improved charcoal, secondary electric), electric + charcoal (primary electric, secondary traditional/improved charcoal), electric exclusive, Mimi Moto primary or secondary (either primary or secondary use regardless of other stove), EcoZoom primary or secondary, and other (gas, wood, kerosene)
prim_stove_end: primary stove used at endline
sec_stove_end: secondary stove used at endline
stove_ind_end_grp: stove usage group at endline: traditional charcoal, improved charcoal (excluding EcoZoom), charcoal + electric (primary traditional/improved charcoal, secondary electric), electric + charcoal (primary electric, secondary traditional/improved charcoal), electric exclusive, Mimi Moto primary or secondary (either primary or secondary use regardless of other stove), EcoZoom primary or secondary, and other (gas, wood, kerosene)

File: CEEEZ_B_Primary.csv

Description: raw data from Lusaka CEEEZ PurpleAir sensor B from October to November 2021.

Variables

created_at: datetime in UTC
PM2.5_CF1_ug/m3: ambient PM2.5 measurement in μgm-3

File: CEEEZ_Primary.csv

Description: raw data from Lusaka CEEEZ PurpleAir sensor A from October to November 2021.

Variables

created_at: datetime in UTC
PM2.5_CF1_ug/m3: ambient PM2.5 measurement in μgm-3
Temperature_F: temperature in Fahrenheit
Humidity_%: relative humidity in %

File: Kabwe_1_B_Primary.csv

Description: raw data from Kabwe 1 PurpleAir sensor B (no longer available) from July to August 2019.

Variables

created_at: datetime in UTC
PM2.5_CF1_ug/m3: ambient PM2.5 measurement in μgm-3

File: Kabwe_1_Primary.csv

Description: raw data from Kabwe 1 PurpleAir sensor A (no longer available) from July to August 2019.

Variables

created_at: datetime in UTC
PM2.5_CF1_ug/m3: ambient PM2.5 measurement in μgm-3
Temperature_F: temperature in Fahrenheit
Humidity_%: relative humidity in %

File: Kabwe_2_B_Primary.csv

Description: raw data from Kabwe 2 PurpleAir sensor B (no longer available) from July to August 2019.

Variables

created_at: datetime in UTC
PM2.5_CF1_ug/m3: ambient PM2.5 measurement in μgm-3

File: Kabwe_2_Primary.csv

Description: raw data from Kabwe 2 PurpleAir sensor A (no longer available) from July to August 2019.

Variables

created_at: datetime in UTC
PM2.5_CF1_ug/m3: ambient PM2.5 measurement in μgm-3
Temperature_F: temperature in Fahrenheit
Humidity_%: relative humidity in %

File: SupaMoto_B_Primary.csv

Description: raw data from Lusaka SupaMoto PurpleAir sensor B from October to November 2021.

Variables

created_at: datetime in UTC
PM2.5_CF1_ug/m3: ambient PM2.5 measurement in μgm-3

File: SupaMoto_Primary.csv

Description: raw data from Lusaka SupaMoto PurpleAir sensor A from October to November 2021.

Variables

created_at: datetime in UTC
PM2.5_CF1_ug/m3: ambient PM2.5 measurement in μgm-3
Temperature_F: temperature in Fahrenheit
Humidity_%: relative humidity in %

Code/software

All data is available in CSVs. All data processing, analysis, and visualization was completed in the aforementioned Jupyter Notebook (https://zenodo.org/doi/10.5281/zenodo.13245015).

This notebook was built under notebook version 6.0.3 and Python version 3.7.6. It includes all analysis completed of raw CSV files and code for all figures and tables in the manuscript. Last updated Mar 24, 2025. The notebook includes the follow analysis sections with a Table of Contents included for ease of use:

loading in various packages for analysis.
loading in CSVs containing CO and PM2.5 exposure hourly diurnal averages for baseline (2019) and endline (2021); figures comparing them.
loading in CSVs containing cook/ household information, 24-hour average CO and PM2.5 for baseline and endline; various figures comparing them.
loading in CSVs from 4 PurpleAir sensors; correcting and averaging raw PurpleAir data; comparing exposure and temperature measurements to PurpleAir data.
comparing baseline to endline exposure data.
applying multiple statistical modeling methods to analyze the impact of the two intervention stoves on cooks’ CO and PM2.5 exposures, including hypothesis testing, difference-in-differences, and cross-sectional generalized least squares modeling.
loading in a CSV of household and primary cook characteristics during baseline for participant comparison.
loading in CSVs for filter corrections of real-time particle exposure sensors during endline.
repeating statistical modeling methods from #6 to include stove influenced hours and consider average SI CO and average SI PM2.5 as dependent variables in models.

Code from the following website was referenced for the propensity score matching used for difference-in-differences analyses: https://www.r-bloggers.com/2022/04/propensity-score-matching/

Data:

Hourly exposure data:
- ZCCS_2019_CO_hourly_CSV - hourly CO exposure in ppm for all participants in 2019 where hour_0 = 00:00, hour_1 = 01:00, etc.
- ZCCS_2019_PM_hourly_CSV - hourly PM_2.5 exposure in μgm^-3 for all participants in 2019 where hour_0 = 00:00, hour_1 = 01:00, etc.
- ZCCS_2019_EM_temp_hourly_CSV - hourly temperature recorded by PM_2.5 exposure monitors in °C for all participants in 2019 where hour_0 = 00:00, hour_1 = 01:00, etc.
- ZCCS_2021_CO_hourly_CSV - hourly CO exposure in ppm for all participants in 2021 where hour_0 = 00:00, hour_1 = 01:00, etc.
- ZCCS_2021_PM_hourly_CSV - hourly PM_2.5 exposure in μgm^-3 for all participants in 2021 where hour_0 = 00:00, hour_1 = 01:00, etc.
- ZCCS_2021_EM_temp_hourly_CSV - hourly temperature recorded by PM_2.5 exposure monitors in °C for all participants in 2021 where hour_0 = 00:00, hour_1 = 01:00, etc.
Processed exposure data, participant questionnaire results:
- ZCCS_2019_ODK_HH_char_CSV - compilation of household and primary cook characteristics from questionnaires for 2019 participants used in Table 2 (e.g., primary cook education level, cook gender)
- ZCCS_2019_2021_combined_EM_CSV - baseline (2019) and endline (2021) data matched for each participant; used for Figure 5.
- ZCCS_2019_2021_Cross_Sectional_All_EM_CSV - compilation of all averaged exposure data and questionnaire data where participants for each year are treated as individual entries (as opposed to the same entry as in ZCCS_2019_2021_combined_EM_CSV); used for statistical analyses (Tables 3-4) and Figure 6.
PurpleAir raw data files:
- Kabwe_1_Primary - raw data from Kabwe 1 PurpleAir sensor A (no longer available) from July to August 2019.
- Kabwe_1_B_Primary - raw data from Kabwe 1 PurpleAir sensor B (no longer available) from July to August 2019.
- Kabwe_2_Primary - raw data from Kabwe 2 PurpleAir sensor A (no longer available) from July to August 2019.
- Kabwe_2_B_Primary - raw data from Kabwe 2 PurpleAir sensor B (no longer available) from July to August 2019.
- CEEEZ_Primary - raw data from Lusaka CEEEZ PurpleAir sensor A from October to November 2021.
- CEEEZ_B_Primary - raw data from Lusaka CEEEZ PurpleAir sensor B from October to November 2021.
- SupaMoto_Primary - raw data from Lusaka SupaMoto PurpleAir sensor A from October to November 2021.
- SupaMoto_B_Primary - raw data from Lusaka SupaMoto PurpleAir sensor B from October to November 2021.
Stove influenced (SI) hours:
- ZCCS_2019_CO_SIperiods_7_20_2 - hourly mask variables for each HHID in 2019 where 0 means the primary cook was not experiencing 'stove-influenced' concentrations during that hour, while a 1 means they were; SI periods were estimated using CO exposure concentrations, n=7, alpha=20, and beta =2
- ZCCS_2021_CO_SIperiods_7_20_2 - hourly mask variables for each HHID in 2021 where 0 means the primary cook was not experiencing 'stove-influenced' concentrations during that hour, while a 1 means they were; SI periods were estimated using CO exposure concentrations, n=7, alpha=20, and beta =2
- ZCCS_2021_PM_SIperiods_7_20_2 - hourly mask variables for each HHID in 2021 where 0 means the primary cook was not experiencing 'stove-influenced' concentrations during that hour, while a 1 means they were; SI periods were estimated using PM_2.5 exposure concentrations, n=7, alpha=20, and beta =2

PurpleAir raw data was corrected in the Jupyter Notebook file using the following literature corrections:

McFarlane, C., Isevulambire, P.K., Lumbuenamo, R.S., Ndinga, A.M.E., Dhammapala, R., Jin, X., McNeill, V.F., Malings, C., Subramanian, R., Westervelt, D.M., 2021a. First Measurements of Ambient PM2.5 in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo and Brazzaville, Republic of Congo Using Field-calibrated Low-cost Sensors. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 21, 200619. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.200619
McFarlane, C., Raheja, G., Malings, C., Appoh, E.K.E., Hughes, A.F., Westervelt, D.M., 2021. Application of Gaussian Mixture Regression for the Correction of Low Cost PM2.5 Monitoring Data in Accra, Ghana. ACS Earth Space Chem. 5, 2268–2279. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsearthspacechem.1c00217
Barkjohn, K.K., Gantt, B., Clements, A.L., 2021. Development and application of a United States-wide correction for PM_2.5 data collected with the PurpleAir sensor. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques 14, 4617–4637. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-4617-2021
Holder, A.L., Mebust, A.K., Maghran, L.A., McGown, M.R., Stewart, K.E., Vallano, D.M., Elleman, R.A., Baker, K.R., 2020. Field Evaluation of Low-Cost Particulate Matter Sensors for Measuring Wildfire Smoke. Sensors 20, 4796. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20174796
Magi, B.I., Cupini, C., Francis, J., Green, M., Hauser, C., 2020. Evaluation of PM2.5 measured in an urban setting using a low-cost optical particle counter and a Federal Equivalent Method Beta Attenuation Monitor. Aerosol Science and Technology 54, 147–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/02786826.2019.1619915

Software:

Data processing, analysis, and visualization was completed in a Jupyter Notebook available on GitHub (https://github.com/stephanieparsons14/Impacts-of-improved-cookstove-interventions-on-personal-exposure-to-CO-and-PM-in-Zambia) and preserved in Zenodo (https://zenodo.org/doi/10.5281/zenodo.13245015).

Code from the following website was referenced for the propensity score matching used for difference-in-differences analyses: https://www.r-bloggers.com/2022/04/propensity-score-matching/

Impacts of improved cookstove interventions on personal exposure to carbon monoxide and particulate matter in Zambia

Data files

Abstract

README: Impacts of improved cookstove interventions on personal exposure to carbon monoxide and particulate matter in Zambia

Description of the data and file structure

Files and variables

File: ZCCS_2019_PM_hourly_CSV.csv

Variables

File: ZCCS_2021_CO_SIperiods_7_20_2.csv

Variables

File: ZCCS_2021_PM_SIperiods_7_20_2.csv

Variables

File: ZCCS_2019_2021_Cross_Sectional_All_EM_CSV.csv

Variables

File: ZCCS_2019_CO_SIperiods_7_20_2.csv

Variables

File: ZCCS_2019_ODK_HH_char_CSV.csv

Variables

File: ZCCS_2021_EM_temp_hourly_CSV.csv

Variables

File: ZCCS_2021_CO_hourly_CSV.csv

Variables

File: ZCCS_2021_PM_hourly_CSV.csv

Variables

File: ZCCS_2019_CO_hourly_CSV.csv

Variables

File: ZCCS_2019_EM_temp_hourly_CSV.csv

Variables

File: ZCCS_2019_2021_combined_EM_CSV.csv

Variables

File: CEEEZ_B_Primary.csv

Variables

File: CEEEZ_Primary.csv

Variables

File: Kabwe_1_B_Primary.csv

Variables

File: Kabwe_1_Primary.csv

Variables

File: Kabwe_2_B_Primary.csv

Variables

File: Kabwe_2_Primary.csv

Variables

File: SupaMoto_B_Primary.csv

Variables

File: SupaMoto_Primary.csv

Variables

Code/software

Methods