Penguins perform lift-based swimming by flapping their wings. Previous kinematic and hydrodynamic studies have revealed the basics of wing motion and force generation in penguins. Although these studies have focused on steady forward swimming, the mechanism of turning manoeuvres is not well understood. In this study, we examined the horizontal turning of penguins via 3D motion analysis and quasi-steady hydrodynamic analysis. Free swimming of gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua) at an aquarium was recorded, and body and wing kinematics were analysed. In addition, quasi-steady calculations of the forces generated by the wings were performed. Among the selected horizontal swimming manoeuvres, turning was distinguished from straight swimming by the body trajectory for each wingbeat. During the turns, the penguins maintained outward banking through a wingbeat cycle and utilized a ventral force during the upstroke as a centripetal force to turn. Within a single wingbeat during the turns, changes in the body heading and bearing also mainly occurred during the upstroke, while the subsequent downstroke accelerated the body forward. We also found contralateral differences in the wing motion; i.e., the inside wing of the turn became more elevated and pronated. Quasi-steady calculations of the wing force confirmed that the asymmetry of the wing motion contributes to the generation of the centripetal force during the upstroke and the forward force during the downstroke. The results of this study demonstrate that the hydrodynamic force of flapping wings, in conjunction with body banking, is actively involved in the mechanism of turning manoeuvres in penguins.

Please see the README document (“README.md”) and the accompanying published article: N. Harada and H. Tanaka. 2022. Kinematic and hydrodynamic analyses of turning manoeuvres in penguins: body banking and wing upstroke generate centripetal force. Journal of Experimental Biology. DOI: 10.1242/jeb.244124.

Please see also the related article: N. Harada, T. Oura, M. Maeda, Y. Shen, D. M. Kikuchi and H. Tanaka. 2021. Kinematics and hydrodynamics analyses of swimming penguins: wing bending improves propulsion performance. Journal of Experimental Biology. DOI: 10.1242/jeb.242140.

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